Kk&s Ch.06 Theories Of Personality And Psychopathology Part 2

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He is best known for his explication of depression from a psychoanalytic perspective and for his elaboration of Freud's stages of psychosexual development.

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Karl Abraham, one of Sigmund Freud's earliest disciples, was the first psychoanalyst in Germany.

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never accepted the primacy of the libido theory, the sexual origin of neurosis, or the importance of infantile wishes.
thought that aggression was far more important, specifically in its manifestation as a striving for power, which he believed to be a masculine trai

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Alfred Adler (Fig. 6.3-1) was born in Vienna, Austria, where he spent most of his life. A general physician, he became one of the original four members of Freud's circle in 1902

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introduced terms:
masculine protest
inferiority complex

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Adler

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ne of the first developmental theorists to recognize the importance of children's birth order in their families of origin.

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Adler

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He wrote extensively about the association between specific personality traits and certain psychosomatic ailments, a point of view that came to be known as the specificity hypothesis.

fell out of favor with classic analysts for advocating the corrective emotional experience as part of analytic technique

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Franz Alexander (Fig. 6.3-2) emigrated from his native Germany to the United States, where he settled in Chicago and founded


the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis

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a psychologist in the United States, is known as the founder of the humanistic school of psychology, which holds that each person has an inherent potential for autonomous function and growth

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Gordon Allport (Fig. 6.3-3),

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In 's view, mature persons have security, humor, insight, enthusiasm, and zest. Psychotherapy is geared to helping patients realize these characteristics.

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Allport

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believed that the urge for the primary love object underlies virtually all psychological phenomena. Infants wish to be loved totally and unconditionally, and when a mother is not forthcoming with appropriate nurturance, a child devotes his or her life to a search for the love missed in childhood. According to ?, the basic fault is the feeling of many patients that something is missing.

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Michael Balint was considered a member of the independent or middle group of object relations theorists in the United Kingdom.

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ultimately developed his own school, known as transactional analysis. A transaction is a stimulus presented by one person that evokes a corresponding response in another.

defined psychological games as stereotyped and predictable transactions that persons learn in childhood and continue to play throughout their lives. Strokes, the basic motivating factors of human behavior, consist of specific rewards, such as
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approval and love. All persons have three ego states that exist within them: the child, which represents primitive elements that become fixed in early childhood; the adult, which is the part of the personality capable of objective appraisals of reality; and the parent, which is an introject of the values of a person's actual parents. The therapeutic process is geared toward helping patients understand whether they are functioning in the child, adult, or parent mode in their interactions with others. As patients learn to recognize characteristic games played again and again throughout life, they can ultimately function in the adult mode as much as possible in interpersonal relationships.

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Eric Berne (Fig. 6.3-4) began his professional life as a training and supervising analyst in classic psychoanalytic theory and technique

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expanded Melanie Klein's concept of projective identification to include an interpersonal process in which a therapist feels coerced by a patient into playing a particular role in the patient's internal world.

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Wilfred Bion

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He also developed the notion that the therapist must contain what the patient has projected so that it is processed and returned to the patient in modified form.

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Bion

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is probably best known for his application of psychoanalytic ideas to groups. Whenever a group gets derailed from its task, it deteriorates into one of three basic states: dependency, pairing, or fight-flight.

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Bion

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considered the founder of attachment theory

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John Bowlby

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He stressed that the essence of attachment is proximity (i.e., the tendency of a child to stay close to the mother or caregiver).

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Bowlby

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He introduced the use of multivariate analysis and factor analysis—statistical procedures that simultaneously examine the relations among multiple variables and factors—to the study of personality.

By examining a person's life record objectively, using personal interviewing and questionnaire data, described a variety of traits that represent the building blocks of personality.

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Raymond Cattell obtained his Ph.D. in England before moving to the United States

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An important concept is the law of coercion to the biosocial mean, which holds that society exerts pressure on genetically different persons to conform to social norms. For example, a person with a strong genetic tendency toward dominance is likely to receive social encouragement for restraint, whereas the naturally submissive person will be encouraged toward self-assertion.

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Catell

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He suggested that infants are not primarily motivated by the drives of libido and aggression but are by an object-seeking instinct.

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Ronald Fairbairn, a Scottish analyst who worked most of his life in relative isolation, was one of the major psychoanalytic theorists in the British school of object relations

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replaced the freudian ideas of energy, ego, and id with the notion of dynamic structures. When an infant encounters frustration, a portion of the ego is defensively split off in the course of development and functions as an entity in relation to internal objects and to other subdivisions of the ego

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Fairburn

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He also stressed that both an object and an object relationship are internalized during development, so that a self is always in relationship to an object, and the two are connected with an affect.

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Fairburn

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He understood the symptoms of his patients as related to sexual and physical abuse in childhood and proposed that analysts need to love their patients in a way that compensates them for the love they did not receive as children. He developed a procedure known as active therapy, in which he encouraged patients to develop an awareness of reality through active confrontation by the therapist. He also experimented with mutual analysis, in which he would analyze his patient for a session and then allow the patient to analyze him for a session.

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Sándor Ferenczi (1873–1933)
Although Sándor Ferenczi, a Hungarian analyst, had been analyzed by Freud and was influenced by him, he later discarded Freud's techniques and introduced his own method of analysis

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identified five character types that are common to, and determined by, Western culture; each person may possess qualities from one or more types. The types are (1) the receptive personality is passive; (2) the exploitative personality is manipulative; (3) the marketing personality is opportunistic and changeable; (4) the hoarding personality saves and stores; and (5) the productive personality is mature and enjoys love and work. The therapeutic process involves strengthening the person's sense of ethical behavior toward others and developing productive love, which is characterized by care, responsibility, and respect for other persons.

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Erich Fromm (Fig. 6.3-5) came to the United States in 1933 from Germany, where he had received his Ph.D. He was instrumental in founding the William Alanson White Institute for Psychiatry in New York.

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greatly elaborated on individual defense mechanisms, including reaction formation, regression, undoing, introjection, identification, projection, turning against the self, reversal, and sublimation.

she was also a key figure in the development of modern ego psychology in that she emphasized that there was “depth in the surface.” The defenses marshaled by the ego to avoid unacceptable wishes from the id were in and of themselves complex and worthy of attention. Up to that point, the primary focus had been on uncovering unconscious sexual and aggressive wishes. She also made seminal contributions to the field of child psychoanalysis and studied the function of the ego in personality development. She founded the Hampstead child therapy course and clinic in London in 1947 and served as its director.

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Anna Freud (1895–1982)
Anna Freud (Fig. 6.3-6), the daughter of Sigmund Freud, ultimately made her own set of unique contributions to psychoanalysis.

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every organism has dynamic properties, which are energy supplies that are relatively constant and evenly distributed. When states of tension-disequilibrium occur, an organism automatically attempts to return to its normal state. What happens in one part of the organism affects every other part, a phenomenon known as holocoenosis.
Self-actualization was a concept ? used to describe persons' creative powers to fulfill their potentialities. Because each person has a different set of innate potentialities, persons strive for self-actualization along different paths. Sickness severely disrupts self-actualization. Responses to disruption of an organism's integrity may be rigid and compulsive; regression to more primitive modes of behavior is characteristic. One of ?'s major contributions was his identification of the catastrophic reaction to brain damage, in which a person becomes fearful and agitated and refuses to perform simple tasks because of the fear of possible failure.

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Kurt Goldstein (Fig. 6.3-7) was born in Germany and received his M.D. from the University of Breslau. He was influenced by existentialism and Gestalt psycholog

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believed that a person's current personality attributes result from the interaction between the person and the environment and are not solely based on infantile
libidinal strivings carried over from childhood. Her theory, known as holistic psychology

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Born and educated in Germany, Karen Horney (Fig. 6.3-8) taught at the Institute of Psychoanalysis in Berlin before immigrating to the United States.

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She thought that the Oedipus complex was overvalued in terms of its contribution to adult psychopathology, but she also believed that rigid parental attitudes about sexuality led to excessive concern with the genitals.

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Horney

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he proposed three separate concepts of the self: the actual self, the sum total of a person's experience; the real self, the harmonious, healthy person; and the idealized self, the neurotic expectation or glorified image that a person feels he or she should be. A person's pride system alienates him or her from the real self by overemphasizing prestige, intellect, power, strength, appearance, sexual prowess, and other qualities that can lead to self-effacement and self-hatred.

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Horney

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established the concepts of basic anxiety and basic trust. The therapeutic process, in her view, aims for self-realization by exploring distorting influences that prevent the personality from growing.

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Horney

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believed that the structural model and an emphasis on object relations are not fundamentally incompatible. She thought that the ego, self-images, and object images exert reciprocal influences on each other's development. She also stressed that the infant's disappointment with the maternal object is not necessarily related to the mother's actual failure.

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Edith Jacobson (1897–1978)
Edith Jacobson, a psychiatrist in the United States,

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isappointment is related to a specific, drive-determined demand, rather than to a global striving for contact or engagement. She viewed an infant's experience of pleasure or “unpleasure” as the core of the early mother–infant relationship. Satisfactory experiences lead to the formation of good or gratifying images, whereas unsatisfactory experiences create bad or frustrating images. Normal and pathological development is based on the evolution of these self-images and object images.

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Jacobson

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He expanded on Freud's concept of the unconscious by describing the collective unconscious as consisting of all humankind's common, shared mythological and symbolic past. The collective unconscious includes archetypes—representational images and configurations with universal symbolic meanings. Archetypal figures exist for the mother, father, child, and hero, among others. Archetypes contribute to complexes, feeling-toned ideas that develop as a result of personal experience interacting with archetypal imagery. Thus, a mother complex is determined not only by the mother–child interaction but also by the conflict between archetypal expectation and actual experience with the real woman who functions in a motherly role.

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Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961)
Carl Gustav Jung (Fig. 6.3-9), a Swiss psychiatrist, formed a psychoanalytic school known as analytic psychology, which includes basic ideas related to, but going beyond, Freud's theories. After initially being Freud's disciple, Jung broke with Freud over the latter's emphasis on infantile sexuality.

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noted that there are two types of personality organizations: introversion and extroversion. Introverts focus on their inner world of thoughts, intuitions, emotions, and sensations; extroverts are more oriented toward the outer world, other persons, and material goods. Each person has a mixture of both components. The persona, the mask covering the personality, is the face a person presents to the outside world. The persona may become fixed, and the real person hidden from himself or
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herself

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Jung

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Anima and animus are unconscious traits possessed by men and women, respectively, and are contrasted with the persona. Anima refers to a man's undeveloped femininity, whereas animus refers to a woman's undeveloped masculinity.

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Jung

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The aim of ? treatment is to bring about an adequate adaptation to reality, which involves a person's fulfilling his or her creative potentialities. The ultimate goal is to achieve individuation, a process continuing throughout life whereby persons develop a unique sense of their own identity. This developmental process may lead them down new paths away from their previous directions in life.

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Jungian

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much of his theory is derived from his clinical work with patients who have borderline personality disorder.

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Otto Kernberg is perhaps the most influential object relations theorist in the United States.

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places great emphasis on the splitting of the ego and the elaboration of good and bad self-configurations and object configurations. Although he has continued to use the structural model, he views the id as composed of self-images, object images, and their associated affects. Drives appear to manifest themselves only in the context of internalized interpersonal experience. Good and bad self-representations and object relations become associated, respectively, with libido and aggression. Object relations constitute the building blocks of both structure and drives. Goodness and badness in relational experiences precede drive cathexis. The dual instincts of libido and aggression arise from object-directed affective states of love and hate.

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Kernberg

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proposed the term borderline personality organization for a broad spectrum of patients characterized by a lack of an integrated sense of identity, ego weakness, absence of superego integration, reliance on primitive defense mechanisms such as splitting and projective identification, and a tendency to shift into primary process thinking. He suggested a specific type of psychoanalytic psychotherapy for such patients in which transference issues are interpreted early in the process.

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Kernberg

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evolved a theory of internal object relations that was intimately linked to drives. Her unique perspective grew largely from her psychoanalytic work with children, in which she became impressed with the role of unconscious intrapsychic fantasy. She postulated that the ego undergoes a splitting process to deal with the terror of annihilation. She also thought that Freud's concept of the death instinct was central to understanding aggression, hatred, sadism, and other forms of “badness,” all of which she viewed as derivatives of the death instinct.

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Melanie Klein (Fig. 6.3-10) was born in Vienna, worked with Abraham and Ferenczi, and later moved to London.

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viewed projection and introjection as the primary defensive operations in the first months of life. Infants project derivatives of the death instinct into the mother and then fear attack from the “bad mother,” a phenomenon that ? referred to as ?.

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Klein
persecutory anxiety

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his anxiety is intimately associated with the ?, infants' mode of organizing experience in which all aspects of infant and mother are split into good and bad elements. As the disparate views are integrated, infants become concerned that they may have harmed or destroyed the mother through the hostile and sadistic fantasies directed toward her.

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paranoid-schizoid position
Klein

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At this developmental point, children have arrived at the ?, in which the mother is viewed ambivalently as having both positive and negative aspects and as the target of a mixture of loving and hateful feelings

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depressive position

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best known for his writings on narcissism and the development of self-psychology. He viewed the development and maintenance of self-esteem and self-cohesion as more important than sexuality or aggression.

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Heinz Kohut

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described Freud's concept of narcissism as judgmental, in that development was supposed to proceed toward object relatedness and away from narcissism. He conceived of two separate lines of
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development, one moving in the direction of object relatedness and the other in the direction of greater enhancement of the self.

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Kohut

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In infancy, children fear losing the protection of the early mother–infant bliss and resort to one of three pathways to save the lost perfection: the grandiose self, the alter ego or twinship, and the idealized parental image. These three poles of the self manifest themselves in psychoanalytic treatment in terms of characteristic transferences, known as

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self-object transferences

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The grandiose self leads to ?, in which patients attempt to capture the gleam in the analyst's eye through exhibitionistic self-display.

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a mirror transference

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The alter ego leads to the ?, in which patients perceive the analyst as a twin

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twinship transference

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The idealized parental image leads to an ?, in which patients feel enhanced self-esteem by being in the presence of the exalted figure of the analyst.

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idealizing transference

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suggested that empathic failures in the mother lead to a developmental arrest at a particular stage when children need to use others to perform self-object functions.

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Kohut

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He attempted to integrate the intrapsychic concepts of Freud with concepts related to linguistics and semiotics (the study of language and symbols). Whereas Freud saw the unconscious as a seething cauldron of needs, wishes, and instincts, ? saw it as a sort of language that helps to structure the world

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Born in Paris and trained as a psychiatrist, Jacques Lacan founded his own institute, the Freudian School of Paris

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His two principal concepts are that the unconscious is structured as a language and the unconscious is a discourse. Primary process thoughts are actually uncontrolled free-flowing sequences of meaning. Symptoms are signs or symbols of underlying processes. The role of the therapist is to interpret the semiotic text of the personality structure.

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Lacan

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Lacan's most basic phase is the ?? ; it is here that infants learn to recognize themselves by taking the perspective of others.

In that sense, the ego is not part of the self but, rather, is something outside of, and viewed by, the self. The ego comes to represent parents and society more than it represents the actual self of the person.

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mirror stage

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?'s therapeutic approach involves the need to become less alienated from the self and more involved with others. Relationships are often fantasized, which distorts reality and must be corrected. Among his most controversial beliefs was that the resistance to understanding the real relationship with the therapist can be reduced by shortening the length of the therapy session and that psychoanalytic sessions need to be standardized not to time but, rather, to content and process.

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Lacan

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He adapted the field approach of physics to a concept called field theory. A field is the totality of coexisting, mutually interdependent parts. Behavior becomes a function of persons and their environment, which together make up the life space. The life space represents a field in constant flux, with valences or needs that require satisfaction. A hungry person is more aware of restaurants than someone who has just eaten, and a person who wants to mail a letter is aware of mailboxes.

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Kurt Lewin received his Ph.D. in Berlin, came to the United States in the 1930s, and taught at Cornell, Harvard, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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believed in self-actualization theory—the need to understand the totality of a person. A leader in humanistic psychology, Maslow described a hierarchical organization of needs present in everyone. As the more primitive needs, such as hunger and thirst, are satisfied, more advanced psychological needs, such as affection and self-esteem, become the primary motivators. Self-actualization is the highest need.

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Abraham Maslow (Fig. 6.3-12) was born in Brooklyn, New York, and completed both his undergraduate and graduate work at the University of Wisconsin

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He also was a prolific writer; The Human Mind, one of his most popular books, brought psychoanalytic understanding to the lay public. He made a compelling case for the validity of Freud's death instinct in Man Against Himself. In The Vital Balance, his magnum opus, he formulated a unique theory of psychopathology

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Karl A. Menninger was one of the first physicians in the United States to receive psychiatric training.

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maintained a lifelong interest in the criminal justice system and argued in The Crime of Punishment that many convicted criminals needed treatment rather than punishment

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Menniger

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Not interested in metapsychology, he espoused a common sense psychobiological methodology for the study of mental disorder, emphasizing the interrelationship of symptoms and individual psychological and biological functioning. His approach to the study of personality was biographical; he attempted to bring psychiatric patients and their treatment out of isolated state hospitals and into communities and was also a strong advocate of social action for mental health.

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Adolph Meyer (Fig. 6.3-13) came to the United States from Switzerland in 1892 and eventually became director of the psychiatric Henry Phipps Clinic of the Johns Hopkins Medical School.

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introduced the concept of common sense psychiatry, and focused on ways in which a patient's current life situation could be realistically improved. He coined the concept of ergasia, the action of the total organism. His goal in therapy was to aid patients' adjustment by helping them modify unhealthy adaptations.

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Meyer

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tool was an autobiographical life chart constructed by the patient during therapy.

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Meyer

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three essential stages of personality development are the stage of undifferentiated wholeness, the stage of differentiation, and the stage of integration. This development is frequently uneven, with both regression and progression occurring along the way. The four inborn human needs are visceral, motor, sensory, and emergency-related. These needs become increasingly specific in time as they are molded by a person's experiences in various social and environmental contexts. Canalization brings about these changes by establishing a connection between a need and a specific way of satisfying the need.

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Murphy

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interested in parapsychology. States such as sleep, drowsiness, certain drug and toxic conditions, hypnosis, and delirium tend to be favorable to paranormal experiences. Impediments to paranormal awareness include various intrapsychic barriers, conditions in the general social environment, and a heavy investment in ordinary sensory experiences.

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Murphy

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e proposed the term personology to describe the study of human behavior. He focused on motivation, a need that is aroused by internal or external stimulation; once aroused, motivation produces continued activity until the need is reduced
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or satisfied. He developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a projective technique used to reveal both unconscious and conscious mental processes and problem areas.

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e proposed the term personology to describe the study of human behavior. He focused on motivation, a need that is aroused by internal or external stimulation; once aroused, motivation produces continued activity until the need is reduced
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or satisfied. He developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a projective technique used to reveal both unconscious and conscious mental processes and problem areas.

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applied Gestalt theory to a therapy that emphasizes the current experiences of the patient in the here and now, as contrasted to the there and then of psychoanalytic schools. In terms of motivation, patients learn to recognize their needs at any given time and the ways that the drive to satisfy these needs may influence their current behavior. According to the Gestalt point of view, behavior represents more than the sum of its parts. A gestalt, or a whole, both includes, and goes beyond, the sum of smaller, independent events; it deals with essential characteristics of actual experience, such as value, meaning, and form.

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Frederick S. Perls (1893–1970)
Gestalt theory developed in Germany under the influence of several men: Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), and Lewin. Frederick “Fritz” Perls

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His theories of adaptational dynamics hold that the organism is a biological system operating under hedonic control, which is somewhat similar to Freud's pleasure principle. Cultural factors often cause excessive hedonic control and disordered behavior by interfering with the organism's ability
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for self-regulation. In therapy, the patient needs to relearn how to experience pleasurable feelings.

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Sandor Rado (1890–1972)
Sandor Rado (Fig. 6.3-17) came to the United States from Hungary in 1945 and founded the Columbia Psychoanalytic Institute in New York.

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developed a new theory, which he called birth trauma. Anxiety is correlated with separation from the mother—specifically, with separation from the womb, the source of effortless gratification. This painful experience results in primal anxiety. Sleep and dreams symbolize the return to the womb.

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Otto Rank (1884–1939)
An Austrian psychologist and a protégé of Sigmund Freud, Otto Rank (Fig. 6.3-18) broke with Freud in his 1924 publication, The Trauma of the Birth, and

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The term character armor refers to the personality's defenses that serve as resistance to self-understanding and change. The four major character types are as follows: the hysterical character is sexually seductive, anxious, and fixated at the phallic phase of libido development; the compulsive character is controlled, distrustful, indecisive, and fixated at the anal phase; the narcissistic character is fixated at the phallic state of development, and if the person is male, he has contempt for women; and the masochistic character is long-suffering, complaining, and self-deprecatory, with an excessive demand for love.

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Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957)
Wilhelm Reich (Fig. 6.3-19), an Austrian psychoanalyst, made major contributions to psychoanalysis in the area of character formation and character types.

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The therapeutic process, called will therapy, emphasizes the relationship between patient and therapist; the goal of treatment is to help patients accept their separateness. A definite termination date for therapy is used to protect against excessive dependence on the therapist.

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Wilhelm Reich

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His name is most clearly associated with the person-centered theory of personality and psychotherapy, in which the major concepts are self-actualization and self-direction. Specifically, persons are born with a capacity to direct themselves in the healthiest way toward a level of completeness called self-actualization.

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Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
Carl Rogers (Fig. 6.3-20) received his Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University. After attending Union Theological Seminary in New York, Rogers studied for the ministry.

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iewed personality not as a static entity composed of traits and patterns but as a dynamic phenomenon involving ever-changing communications, relationships, and self-concepts.

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Rogers

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developed a treatment program called client-centered psychotherapy. Therapists attempt to produce an atmosphere in which clients can reconstruct their strivings for self-actualization. Therapists hold clients in unconditional positive regard, which is the total nonjudgmental acceptance of clients as they are. Other therapeutic practices include attention to the present, focus on clients' feelings, emphasis on process, trust in the potential and self-responsibility of clients, and a philosophy grounded in a positive attitude toward them, rather than a preconceived structure of treatment.

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Rogers

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developed what he called existential psychoanalysis. The reflective self was a key concept in
He recognized that humans alone could reflect on themselves as objects, so that the experience of “being” in humans is unique in the natural world. This capacity to reflect leads humans to impose a meaning on existence.
meaning allows a human being to create his or her own essence.

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Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)
Born in Paris, Jean-Paul Sartre wrote plays and novels before turning to psychology. He was a German prisoner of war from 1940 to 1941 during World War II. Influenced by the ideas of Martin Heidegger, he developed what he called

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denied the realm of the unconscious; he thought that human beings were condemned to be free and to face the fundamental existential dilemma—their aloneness without a god to provide meaning. As a result, each individual creates values and meanings. Neurosis is an escape from freedom, which is the key to maintaining psychological health.

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Sarte

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made no distinction between philosophy and psychology. Psychologists, as with philosophers, search for the truth about the world

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Sarte

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was the dialectic between consciousness and being. Consciousness introduces nothingness and is a negation of being-in-itself. Ideals are revealed in actions, not in professed beliefs.

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Sarte

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eminal work in operant learning laid much of the groundwork for many current methods of behavior modification, programmed instruction, and general education. His global beliefs about the nature of behavior have been applied more widely, it can be argued, than those of any other theorist except, perhaps, Freud. His impact has been impressive in scope and magnitude.

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B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (Fig. 6.3-21), commonly known as B. F. Skinner, received his Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard University, where he taught for many years. Skinner's

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approach to personality was derived more from his basic beliefs about behavior than from a specific theory of personality per se.

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Skinner

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personality did not differ from other behaviors or sets of behaviors; it is acquired, maintained, and strengthened or weakened according to the same rules of reward and punishment that alter any other form of behavior. Behaviorism, as Skinner's basic theory is most commonly known, is concerned only with observable, measurable behavior that can be operationalized. Many abstract and mentalistic hallmarks of other dominant personality theories have little place in 's framework. Concepts such as self, ideas, and ego are considered unnecessary for understanding behavior and are shunned. Through the process of operant conditioning and the application of basic principles of learning, persons are believed to develop sets of behavior that characterize their responses to the world of stimuli that they face in their lives. Such a set of responses is called personality.

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Skinner

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described three modes of experiencing and thinking about the world. The prototaxic mode is undifferentiated thought that cannot separate the whole into parts or use symbols. It occurs normally in infancy and also appears in patients with schizophrenia. In the parataxic mode, events are causally related because of temporal or serial connections. Logical relationships, however, are not perceived. The syntaxic mode is the logical, rational, and most mature type of cognitive functioning of which a person is capable. These three types of thinking and experiencing occur side by side in all persons; it is the rare person who functions exclusively in the syntaxic mode.
The total configuration of personality traits is known as the self-system, which develops in various stages and is the outgrowth of interpersonal experiences, rather than an unfolding of intrapsychic forces. During infancy, anxiety occurs for the first time when infants' primary needs are not satisfied. During childhood, from 2 to 5 years, a child's main tasks are to learn the requirements of the culture and how to deal with powerful adults. As a juvenile, from 5 to 8 years, a child has a need for peers and must learn how to deal with them. In preadolescence, from 8 to 12 years, the capacity for love and for collaboration with another person of the same sex develops. This so-called chum period is the prototype for a sense of intimacy. In the history of patients with schizophrenia, this experience of chums is often missing. During adolescence, major tasks include the separation from the family, the development of standards and values, and the transition to heterosexuality.

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Harry Stack Sullivan

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The therapy process requires the active participation of the therapist, who is known as a participant observer. Modes of experience, particularly the parataxic, need to be clarified, and new patterns of behavior need to be implemented. Ultimately, persons need to see themselves as they really are, instead of as they think they are or as they want others to think they are.

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Sullivan

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is best known for his creative psychotherapeutic work with severely disturbed patients. He believed that even the most psychotic
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patients with schizophrenia could be reached through the human relationship of psychotherapy.

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Sullivan

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is theory of multiple self-organizations included a true self, which develops in the context of a responsive holding environment provided by a good-enough mother. When infants experience a traumatic disruption of their developing sense of self, however, a false self emerges and monitors and adapts to the conscious and unconscious needs of the mother; it thus provides a protected exterior behind which the true self is afforded a privacy that it requires to maintain its integrity.

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Donald W. Winnicott (1897–1971)
Donald W. Winnicott (Fig. 6.3-23) was one of the central figures in the British school of object relations theory.

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also developed the notion of the transitional object. Ordinarily a pacifier, blanket, or teddy bear, this object serves as a substitute for the mother during infants' efforts to separate and become independent. It provides a soothing sense of security in the absence of the mother.

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Winnicott