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276 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Who is Wilhelm Wundt?
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Set up the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in order to scientifically study how people sense and perceive the world around them.
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Theoretical approaches = Structuralists and Functionalist.
What did Structuralists believe? |
That consciousness was made up of basic elements that were combined in different ways to produce different perceptions.
*** They focus on what the behaviors and characteristics are, and on finding their basic components |
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What is introspection?
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Involves reporting on one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.
Technique favored my structuralists for examining mental experience. |
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Who is Edward Titchener?
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He set up the first psychology lab in the U.S.
Him and Wundt emphasized accurate measurement and replicability (exact copy) in their studies, but introspection was a subjective way to study consciousness and couldn't be used to study kids or animals. so it fell into disfavor. |
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What did Functionalists believe?
***Focus on the value that behaviors and other psychological characteristics have for an organism's adaptation to its environment Side Note:Currently psychologist study both the structure and function of behavior. |
That consciousness, and behavior in general, helped people and animals adjust to their environment. (William James)
They were less concerned with what made up mental experience than in how mental experiences or processes were adaptive, or functional, for people. |
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5 philosophical orientations guide psychological research and theory.
1 - Focus on understanding how physiological and biochemical processes might produce psychological phenomena. |
Biological Approach
Explanations of behavior are reduced to the working genes, the nervous system, hormones, neurotransmitters |
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2 - Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors stem from the interaction of innate (inborn, natural) drives and society's restrictions on the expression of those drives.
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Psychodynamic approach.
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Who said the most important urges are the sexual and aggressive ones?
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Sigmund Freud
said that society doesn't approve of unrestricted sex and aggression so we all face conflict between getting our needs met and alienating other people. How we resolve these conflicts during the first few years of life determines our personality. |
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3 -Explain behavior primarily in terms of learned responses to predictable patterns of environmental stimuli(operant and classical conditioning)
They preferred to avoid the explanations of behavior that didn't involve observable events(stimuli) making reference to expectations, feelings and thoughts frowned apron. |
Behaviorist approach.
Those who are behaviorists often study animals in order to glean general principles of learning that might then be applied to humans |
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Who studied classical conditioning?
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Pavlov.
Exemplifies the Behaviorist approach. |
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Who studied operant conditioning?
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Skinner.
Exemplifies the Behaviorist approach. |
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4 - developed as a reaction against behaviorism. They focus on explaining behavior in terms of things that didn't involve observable events(stimuli) making reference to expectations, feelings and thoughts frowned apron. |
Cognitive Approach They might study problem solving, attention, expectations, memory and other thought processes. |
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5 -People are motivated by a desire for optimal growth and development (self-actualization) That each one of us comes with his or her own unique set of desires, abilities, skills and needs and must be able to express this to be happy They see people as good and focus on the positive aspect of development |
Humanistic approach Centeal claim that people are not merly machines who's behaviors are determined for them by a genetic code, a conflicted childhood, brushes with stimuli and cold mental calculations. |
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When Researchers asses cause-and effect relationships between at least 2 variables.
The "cause" is represented by what? The "effect" represents what? |
Experiments
Independent variable. and will always involve treating subjects in at least 2 different ways. Dependent variable. and will involve measuring how subjects behave. |
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The subjects that are exposed to the presumed "cause" are in the? The subjects not exposed to the "cause" are in the ? |
Experimental Group
Control Group |
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What is a Placebo Effect?
What is a Placebo? What is a blind study? |
When subjects in the experimental group behave differently then they normally would only because they know they are being expose to the special treatment. -Fake special treatment given to control-group -If subjects do not know whether they're receiving the drug or the placebo. |
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Who does not know about the placebo in a
double-blind study? |
The subjects and the experimenters.
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Also Involves assessing the relationship between two variables, But neither variable is manipulated so there is no way to determine whetherchanges in one variable causes changes in another.
Only how changes in one are related to changes in the other can be determined. |
Correlational studies.
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Means that high scores on one variable tend to be paired with high scores on the other variable.
(and low scores with low scores) |
Positive relationship.
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Means that high scores on one variable tend to be paired with low scores on the other variable.
(and low scores with high scores) |
Negative relationship.
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Describes the strength of a relationship. Ranges from -1.0 to 1.0 with high absolute values representing stronger relationships.
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Correlation coefficient.
Low correlation (.02 or -.04) indicate that there is not a consistent relationship between 2 variables (example: height and IQ) |
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Participants are asked to fill out questionnaires that ask them about their opinions, attitudes or behaviors. |
Surveys |
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When behavior is studied as it occurs in real-life settings.
2 things to be aware of here: Must be Unobtrusive (not interfering with ongoing behavior) and having high agreement among observers as to what is happening. |
Naturalist observation.
Agreement among observers is a measure of "inter-judge", "inter-rater" or "inter-observer" reliability. |
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Concerned with how communication happens and how behavior is influenced by it.
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Behavioral neuroscience.
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An organization or neurons, neurotransmitters, and brain structure that serves as the framework for moving information through out the body
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Nervous system
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Detect heat, or light, or touch and then pass information about those stimuli on to the brain, thereby triggering thoughts about those things and/or causing behavioral responses to occur.
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Sense receptors.
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Pathways for communication of sense receptors.
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Neurons. (nerve cells) - 3 types
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Take in information from body tissues and sense organs, and transmit it to the spinal cord and brain.
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1 - Sensory Neurons (afferent neurons )
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Send information in the opposite direction.
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2 - Motor Neurons. ( efferent neurons)
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Neurons that communicate with other neurons.
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Interneurons (associative neurons)
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Short, bushy fibers that take information in from outside the cell.
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Dendrites
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NEURON PARTS
-Contains structures that help to keep the cell alive and functioning -Short, bushy fibers that take info ration in from outside the cell -Long fibers that pass info. along to other nerve cells, to glands, or to muscles. |
Cell Body Dendrites |
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A fatty tissue that surrounds the axon and accelerates tranmission of info. (only on some neurons)
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Myelin sheath.
*** SIDE NOTE : The message traveling along the axon of a neuron is in the form of an electrical impulse, while communication between neurons takes the form of a chemical messenger known as a neurotransmitter. |
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Neurons work though (1) electrical impulses and (2) Neurotransmitters
(1) a signal (information) from a sense receptor or another neuron, coming in through a neurons dendrite, gets passed along when it triggers a ? The fluid inside a resting Axon contain predominantly negatively charged ? |
Action Potential (electrical pulse) - that travels down the axon and then triggers activity in whichever neuron, muscles, or glands join up with that axon. |
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Arrangement maintained because the axon's membrane won't let positive ions into the cell unless the cell receives a signal from the dendrites.
When signal arrives, the part of the axon nearest the dendrites is? |
Resting potential
Depolarized by that signal, allowing positive ions in. Which then depolarizes the next part of the axon and the action potent ion continues in a domino way down the axon to its destination. |
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period when the neuron pumps out the sodium ions and can then fire again.
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Refractory Period
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(2) Neurotransmitters There is a small gap between neurons. The junction where the end of one neuron meets the beginning of another is called a ? The gap between them - less then 1 millionth of an inch - is called a ? |
Synapse
Synaptic Gap - Communication across this Gap is accomplished with neurotransmitters. |
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Chemical molecules contained in Vesicles (or sacs) within the Axon Terminal ( the knob like end of the axon) are called ? When an action potential arrives in the terminal, the neurotransmitters are released into the ? |
Neurotransmitters Synaptic Cleft They then bind to receptor siteson the next neurons dendrites. |
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Excess Neurotransmitters left in the gap either breaks down through a process called _____ or is absorbed back into a neuron through a process called _____. |
Enzymatic Degradation Reuptake |
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Different neurotransmitters effect different neurons, so each neurotransmitter effects ______ differently.
Example: _______ helps control arousal and sleep. |
Behavior |
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Drugs that mimic a particular neurotransmitter or make more of it available by blocking its reuptake.
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Agonists
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Drugs that block a neurotransmitter's receptor site or inhibit its release are caller?
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Antagonists
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System that includes the brain, and the spinal cord. |
Centeal Nervous System
Peripheral nervous system.(PNS) - divided in to 2 systems |
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PNS system 1 System that accomplishes to functions which , together, allow you to operate in the external environment. It carries info. from muscles, sense organs, and skin to the central nervous system and messages from the central system to the skeletal muscles. |
Somatic nervous system
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PNS system 2 |
Autonomic nervous system
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Autonomic nervous system is broken down into 2 main divisions that work together.
1 - System that Prepares you for action |
Symphathetic nervous system.
(quickens your heart beat, slows your digestion, raises the level of sugar i your blood, widens your arteries and stimulates you sweat glands) |
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2 - Deactivates the systems mobilized.= by the sympathetic nervous system and is in operation in states of relaxation.
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Parasympathetic nervous system.
(decreased heart rate, breathing rate and digestion function) |
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Neurons in the brain work together as ?
Begins where the spinal cord enters the skull and is, biologically the brains oldest region. responsible for controlling breathing and heartbeat. |
Neural Networks (groups of neurons that serve similar functions) - which can be spread physically though out many areas of the brain.
Brainstem |
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Sits onto of the brainstem and receives information about touch, taste, sight, and hearing (NOT smell) and sends i to the higher brain regions.
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Thalamus
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Runs through the brainstem and the Thalamus and it known mostly for its control of arousal and sleep, But it also filters incoming stimuli and sends information to other part of the brain.
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Reticular formation
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-Is at the rear base of the brain and is most notable for coordination of voluntary movement.
-This sits between older parts of the brain and the more recently evolved cerebral cortex and comprises several component structures. |
-Cerebellum
-Limbic System |
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Processes memory
Influences fear and anger |
Hippocampus
Amygdala |
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Neural networks within the _______ Influence hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior.( and also controls the Pituitary Gland. )
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Hypothalamus
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"master gland " influences the release of hormones from other glands
A chemical messengers that are produced in one kind of tissue, travel throughout he blood strew, and then effect the functions of some other tissues, including the brain. |
Pituitary gland
Hormones(These hormones and the glands that produce them, constitute the endocrine system.) |
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The outer covering of the brain - is primarily involved in Motor, cognitive, and sensory processes.
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Cerebral cortex
Each of the 2 hemispheres (left and right) of the cerebral cortex is devided into 4 regions. |
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Just behind the forehead
Plays a part in coordinating movement and in higher level thinking such as planning and predicting the consequences of behavior. They are also involved in speech |
Frontal lobes
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Where is the Broca's area and what does it affect if damaged
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Frontal lobe, Can usually understand speech but can only speak slowly and with great difficulty.
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Where is the Wernicke's area and what does it affect if damaged?
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Frontal lobe, Can physically speak, but with stringed together meaningless words.
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Lobes at the Top of the head, but behind the frontal Lobes.
Involved in the sensor of touch. Allows us to keep tabs on where our hands and feet are and what they're up to. |
Parietal Lobes
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Lobes located just above and and on either side of the ears.Involved in hearing
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Temporal lobes
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Lobes located at the base of the skull, in the back
Involved in vision. |
Occipital lobes.
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Transforming energy form the stimuli ouside us (light waves or sound waves) in to neutral energy that can be used as perception Mentally creating an image of the outside world. (AKA constructing meaning out of sensation) |
Sensation Perception |
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Area of psychology that addresses the topic of sensation.
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Psychophysics.
Includes: the levels of intensity at which we can detect stimuli, how sensitive we are to changes in stimulation, and how psychological factors influence our ability to sense stimuli. |
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Signal Detection Theory
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Our ability to notice a stimulus will vary due to psychological factors including motivation, past experience, and expectations. |
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Minimum stimulation needed for a given person to detect a given stimulus.
(typically thought of as necessary for a stimulus to be detected 50% of the time that it's present) |
Absolute threshold.
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Smallest difference a person can detect between two similar stimuli.
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Just noticeable difference or Jnd (or the difference threshold)
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According to what, the threshold increases in proportion to the intensity or magnitude of the stimuli ?
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Weber's Law
AKA: any given differences is harder to notice with more intense powerful stimuli than with weaker ones. 40 Vs 60 watt bulb is easier to detect then a 70 vs 90 watt even though the Absolute differences are both 20 watts |
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Stimuli have to change in someway in order to remain noticeable. When exposed to an unchanging stimulus, the nerve cells involved in detecting it begin to fire less frequently and our sensitivity to the stimulus diminishes. This is called...?
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Sensory Adaptation
Which Predisposes us to attend to stimuli that matter to us and not attend to stimuli that don't |
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What is an individual neuron of the visual cortex that might only responds to a line that is tilted at a 20-degree angle and go quite when the same line is tilted at a different angle. |
FEATURE DETECTORS Info form this feature detection cell (& others that are triggered at the same time) is passed on to cells that only respond to more complex patterns (maybe leg moving in specific direction). clusters of "supercells" then integrate this information and will fire if the collective cues are indicative of say someone approaching from the side |
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What Illustrates that our ideas about reality have to be chosen, organized, and interpreted, not simply detected?
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Selective attention
(The information we can hold in our awareness is less than the amount of information available from our environment) |
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Who were among the first to formulate rules by which the brain pieces together meaningful experiences out of fragments of sensation .
AKA: perceive a whole circle when in reality there are only disconnected parts of a circle falling in a circular pattern |
Gestalt psychologists
Their research shows that in a variety of ways the mind fills in the gaps in our sensations. **CONTINUITY & CLOSURE = TENDANCY TO SEE PART AS FORMING A WHOLE |
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What is it called when we are seeing an object in 3 dimension (a perception) despite the fact that the image on our retinas are only in two dimensions (a sensation) This also allows us to estimate distance between ourselves and the objects we see. |
Dept Perception (we do this with the help of 2 types perceptual cues - next cards) |
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-Depth perception require both eyes. |
- Binocular cues -This retinal disparity is 1 binocular cue to distance. |
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Finger held on noes, Left and Right eye have a different view. Finger held far away Left and Right eye have very similar images.
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Low R.D is a crude (raw state) indicator that an object is relatively far away. |
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Second Binocular cue to distance. The extent to which the eyes must turn inward to view an object. |
Convergence
Greater Convergence indicates a closer object. |
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Perceptual Cue that requires only one eye for debt perception.
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Monocular cues.
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Refers to the Fact that parallel lines appear to converge as they get farther away.
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Linear perspective.
(with railroad tracks, their distance appears to be greater when the 2 tracks appear closer together) |
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Refers to the apparent movement of stable objects as we ourselves move.
EX: driving in car, tree in distance is your Fixation Point. Objects closer then the tree appear to be moving backwards, and the nearer they are the faster they seam to be moving. Objects past the tree appear to be moving with you but more slowly as they get farther away. |
Motion parallax ( or Relative Motion)
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When one object partially blocks another object, we perceive it as closer. This is called...
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Interposition |
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Influence judgments of depth.
Objects that are close tend to appear to be distinct (having a "coarse" texture), whereas those that are far away tend to blend together into an indistinct, fine texture. |
Texture gradients
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The studies of _________ demonstrated that
perceptual cues (binocular cues/ monocular cues) are largely "wired in" to our brains but, to some extent, our experiences shape our perceptions. (1 way in which experience shapes perception) |
Sensory Restriction - (next card) |
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Without appropriate stimulation in the beginning periods , the cells in their cortex wont develop the inter connections that would allow the perception to tell the difference between object of different shapes. This doesn't happen when the Sensory Restriction takes place during adulthood. This suggest that there is a___________ |
Critical Period, during which exposure to appropriate stimuli is required in order for the various perceptual skills to develop. (kitten example)
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Ex: gender stereotypes. People perceive a crying baby girl as weak and scares and a crying baby boy as strong and mad. |
Perceptual Sets
(Another way in which experience shapes perception) |
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General Principle: Processing information about the environment occurs in a ?
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Bottom-up fashion and a Top-down fashion.
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From simple sensory receptors to more complex neural networks is a ? |
Bottom-up fashion |
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State of being aware. This is reflecting on the environment or on internal experiences rather than simply reacting to them.
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Consciousness
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Hormone levels, body temperature, and wakefulness rise and fall in predictable ways during the course of a day. These characters predictability stems from their being synchronized with the parts of the day.These characteristics have a...? |
Circadian rhythm
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There is a biological rhythm for sleep. |
Five, 90
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Electrical currents in the brain as shown graphically on an EEG.
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Brain waves
Stages of sleep are distinguished by type and appearance of brain waves involved in each stage. |
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Awake but relaxed the brain produces ....? Stage 1 |
Alpha Waves (relatively slow and regular) |
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Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 3 and 4 together = Slow wave sleep, last about 30 min and are the most difficult to wake from |
2- last 20 minutes. involves deeper relaxation and occasional burst of rhythmic brain waves called sleep spindles and K-complexes. 3 - Brain starts to produce delta waves (appear on EEG monitor as large slow waves) Is a transition in to stage 4 4- involves stronger more consistent Delta waves |
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Stage 5
SLEEP (After REM Stage the sleeper moves back in to stage 2 then 3 and the next cycle continues) (Periods of REM sleep get longer with each cycle and periods of stage 4 sleep get shorter) |
About on hour after falling asleep, you begin to move back in to stage 3 & then 2. instead of sliding back in to stage 1 sleep, ppl normally move in to a 10 min period of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. where brain waves are similar to stage 1 but breathing is more rapid and irregular, heart rate increases and eyes dart back and forth. (usually people dream here in REM sleep)
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The sleeper appears calm and relaxed despite a great deal of cortical activity.
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Paradoxical sleep.
(REM sleep is sometimes called this) |
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Recurring difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep.
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Insomnia
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Sudden uncrontrollable attacks of sleep during waking hours. (May fall directly into RIM sleep, completely losing muscular tension)
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Narcolepsy
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Stop breathing intermittently during sleep.
Lack of oxygen wakes the sleeper up enough to be able to snort for more air (can occur 100's of times in a night) |
Sleep Apnea
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Freud saw dreams as a way to preserve sleep: The Manifest content of the dream (the images that actually appear to the dreamer) is a disguised version of the dream's Latent content. |
(by distorting or disguising the wish the dreamer avoids the anxiety that would accompany his being aware of it, therefore he can remain sleeping) |
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A "forbidden" sexual or aggressive wish that the dreamer would repress if awake.
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Latent content.
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In this theory the brain's neurons fire randomly during sleep, and as we wake, we construct a dream in order to make since of the random images that have been generated.
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Activation-sythesis theory.
(focuses on dreams' physiological functions) |
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Claim that dreams are a way to consolidate information. As we dream, we sort through the day's events and stamp them into memory.
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Information-processing
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When derived from (deemed necessary) REM sleep and the dreams that accompany it fro a period of time people typically make up for it later by experiencing prolonged periods of REM sleep called? |
REM Rebound
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An Induced state of consciousness characterized by deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility.
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Hypnosis
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3 Different explanations for the effects of hypnosis 1- it is simply a heightened state of motivation. 2-Socila Roles 3-Dissociation |
1-Ppl who are hypnotized want to be. and want to do what the hypnotist tells them to. 2- Related to #1. Hypnotized subjects are filling social roles by behaving the way the hypnotist wants them to behave 3- Hypnotist involves a split in consciousness, which allows a person to become aware of his/her activities while under hypnosis. |
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Produce a state of consciousness that is different from "normal" consciousness by mimicking, inhibiting, or stimulating the activity of neurotransmitters.
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Psychoactive drugs, 3 most Common:
Depressants - slow down body functions and neurological activities (alcohol, barbiturates and opiates) Stimulants - increase neural activities and body functions Hallucinogens - distort perceptions and produce sensations that have no physical basis. |
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An enduring or a relatively permanent change in an organism caused by experience or influences in the environment.
THINK: (learning involves accommodating an event that is probably going to happen. It may or may not involve a change in knowledge.) |
Learning
2 types: associative and non-associative |
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An earlier event that influences the way an organism behaves in the present. Any factor in the environment that causes a reaction is know as a ? Any reaction by an organism (voluntary or involuntary ) is called a ? |
Experience Stimulus Response |
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Which group first began studying learning and wanted to focus only on observable events.?
Who Stressed that psychology should include only the investigation of observable and measurable behavior. (although learning is also influenced by biological, cognitive and social factors) |
Behaviorists
John B Watson and B.F Skinner |
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???Expectations and the ability to represent events mentally.
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Cognitive factors??
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Occurs when repeated encounters with a stimulus produces an enduring change in behavior.
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Non-associative learning
Example: Habituation = repeated presentation of a stimulus eventually reduces the likelihood or intensity of responses to that stimulus. the response thats changing is "paying attention" |
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Occurs when the repeated or long-lasting presentation of an intense stimulus increases the response to a second, weaker stimulus.
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Sensitization
Example: while watching movie, the sounds of someone getting slapped might startle you if it comes after a long, noisy, action filled fitting scene (intense stimulus). |
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Involves the learning of a connection either between two stimuli or between a response and a stimulus.
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Associative learning
3 distinct procedures for producing associative learning: classical conditioning, operating conditioning, and observational learning. |
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Produces changes in responding by pairing two stimuli together.
AKA: Involves the appearance of one stimulus being predictable from the appearance of another stimulus. |
Classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
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-Stimuli 1 (meat powder) already produces the response of interest (dog salivate) -Presenting Meat powder (US) immediately after stimulus 2 (bell ring) -Now Neutral stimulus becomes capable of producing UR and the Neutral Stimuli and its response can be called? |
Meat = Unconditional stimuli (US or UCS) Salivate = Unconditional response (UR UCR) Bell ring = Neutral Stimulus NS-> Conditional Stimulus (CS) its response -> Conditional Response (CR) that can virtually be thought of as "preparatory" responses Pg 43 |
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Widely accepted that what an organism learns is an expectation: the US will show up after the CS.
Learning or a new expectation, that the US no longer follows the CS? |
Extinction (if the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the CR will go away) |
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Involves learning an association between a response and a stimulus that follows it (predictability).
AKA: the consequence of the behavior affects how often it will be performed |
Operant conditioning.
Learning the association either increases or decreases the frequency of the response, depending on the quality of the consequence(pleasant or unpleasant) [ called Instrumental Conditioning by Edward Thorndike because the response is instrumental , this would come to be called operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner.] |
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2 types of consequences and 2 ways each one can come about. Positive or Negative refers to what happened to the stimulus as the result of a particular behavior. |
Reinforcement
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Presenting a stimulus that will feel good to have ( giving a dog a treat) Removing a stimulus or preventing it form occurring that would feel bad to have (a head ache goes away after taking aspirin) |
Positive Reinforcement (stimulus shows up) Negative Reinforcement (stimulus is removed) In both cases the behavior produces a desirable effect and so the behavior will happen more ofter(taking aspirin or giving dog treat) |
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2 - Always involves something unpleasant happening and a decrease in the target behavior.
Positive or Negative refers to what happened to the stimulus as the result of a particular behavior. (Either a stimulus showed up or went away) |
Punishment
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Involves the appearance of an unpleasant stimulus (yanking on a dogs chow collar when it barks) Involces taking away a pleasant stimulus (Paying a fine- hat is losing money - after getting a speeding ticket) - sometimes referred to as response- cost training |
Positive Punishment Negative Punishment
In both cases the behavior produces an undesirable effect , and so the behavior begins to happen less often. |
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When operant- conditioned stimulus that used to show up predictably after the response doesn't follow it anymore. |
Extinction That stimulus is a reinforcer or punisher and the learned behavior dosn't necessarily disappear (like with classical conditioning) but returns to its baseline level - the frequency with which it happened prior to conditioning |
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The idea that we can learn operant behaviors (and maybe reflexive, classically conditioned ones) indirectly.
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Observational learning
(we personally don't need to be reinforced or punished for something in order to do it more or less often, we can lean what the consequences are by watching them happen to other people and then apply what we've learned to our own lives) |
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The people form whom we learn are called? |
Models
Vicariously = by watching what happens to Models. |
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Can be thought of as the mental activities involved in solving problems: thinking, language, memory and intelligence.
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Cognition
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Mental rules of thumbs.
People use them as shortcuts as a way to solve problems, especially those involving estimates of "likelihood" with minimal effort. |
Heuristics
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You're asking yourself how similar or "representative" one event (the course you might want to take) is of a class of events (courses you like).
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Representativeness heuristic.
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Involves judging the likelihood that an event will happen in terms of how readily you can bring an instance of it to mind.
Events that are more vivid or more recent would deb judged as more likely to happen then those that are less vivid or recent. |
Availability Heuristic.
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Refers to people's tendency to look for informations that will support their beliefs.
(often studied -> people systematically and predictable make errors in their judgments) |
Confirmation bias
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The inability to see new uses for familiar objects.
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Functional fixedness.
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Two most studied systems of linguistics: 1- Rules for mapping morphemes(words, or part of words, that convey meaning) onto the ideas they represent (next card) |
Semantics |
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2- Rules for combining morphemes in meaningful ways.
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Syntax.
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at 4 to 6 month of age babies appear to be practicing the sounds used in their language, last until 1st birthday. (here their ability to recognize sounds that arn't used in their language increases and the occurrence of such sounds decreases. ) |
Babbling stage
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From about 1 year to about 18 months of age babies enter what stage? |
One-word Stage |
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Telegraphic speech is when babies use an accompanying gestures convey additional meaning and is typical of what stage?
Here children primarily use a nown combined with a verb (Doggie Bight) and a few months later and additive followed by a noun (Bad Doggie) |
Two-word Stage
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Attempted to explain language development in terms of operant conditioning principles.
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B.F. Skinner
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Claimed that children have a language acquisition device - a universal, built-in mental system that steers us toward interpreting and using language in particular ways.
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Noam Chomsky
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A fleeting awareness of whatever the senses have detected.
(if attended to, this information enters #2) |
3 types of of memory:
1- Sensory Memory |
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The information that can be kept in the mind long enough to solve problems.
(this information will be lost unless extra effort is expended to transfer it to #3) An unlimited, and perhaps permanent, storehouse of memories. |
2- Short-term memory (working memory)
3- Long-term memory |
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Deliberate, though sometimes automatic and unconscious, methods used for getting info. into long-term memory.
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Mnemonic strategies.
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The deliberate, conscious repetition of information
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Rehearsal
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Grouping pieces of information into meaningful units (internal revenue service = IRS)
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Chunking
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About how well you solve problems.
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Intelligence.
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First to develop an intelligence test that yielded a score that reflected the test-takers mental age that corresponded to their test performance.
(incorporated into the IQ test) |
Alfred Binet.
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Mental age divided by chronological (actual) age
multiplied by 100. based on a comparison between the test-takers score and the average score for others of his or her age (standardization or norms-based referencing) |
Intelligence quotient. (IQ)
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He labeled general intelligence "g".
General Intelligence - test that generate a single IQ score assume that there is a single, unitary skill underlying peoples ability to solve all sort or problems. |
Charles Spearman
BUT most who study intelligence these days subscribe to the idea that there are multiple intelligences - separate , distinct problem-solving abilities. |
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People differ in how much of any particular kind of intelligence they seem to possess. Bc of the Nature vs Nurture debate. Differences in IQ scores are probably the product of interactions between nature and nurture. |
"Nature" refers to our biological, genetic heritage, whereas "nurture" refers to environmental effects on our development. (example: Twins - Nature born together with same genetic make up -Nurture Raised apart causing different IQ's) |
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The psychological process that energizes and directs behavior.
(Needs and Desires that fuel our behavior/ Activating behavior and steering it towards a goal) |
Motivation
(motives - explained in terms of both biological and social-psychological influences) |
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Often used to illustrate how these factors can impact the occurrence and expression of a motive.
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Hunger
(It is not clear if hunger is triggered by low glucose levels, high insulin levels or both.) |
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A Blood sugar that provides energy for the bodily functions? Comes from the breakdown of foods that have recently been eaten |
Glucose [You are more likely to eat when glucose levels are low BUT high levels of glucose in the blood trigger the release os INSULIN (hormone produced in pancreas) that converts glucose to stored fat removing it from the blood stream.] |
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The part of the brain that seems to be most
important for monitoring hunger-related signals. |
Hypothalamus.
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Responsible for stopping hunger.
Stimulation to it will depress hunger and damage to it results in eating even when one is full. (Located in the lower middle portion of the Hypothalamus) |
Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VH)
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Responsible for increasing hunger.
Stimulation causes eating even when animals are well fed, and damage to it will prevent even an animal that is starving from eating food. (Located on the sides of the Hypothalamus) |
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
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The weight our own body works to maintain.
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Set point
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Social psychological factors that influence when or how much people eat 2 eating disorders |
Anorexia Nervosa- obsessed with food but avoid eating it. Bulimia - typically dieters but they Binge or Purge on a regular basis eating rage a bouts of food at a single eating (binging) and then using laxatives, diuretics or vomiting to get rid of it (purging) |
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Another psychological influence on the motivation to eat is a personality trait called "Externality" |
Externals - become hungry when smell of food or the time of day tell them to eat. (more likely to be overweight and diet)
Internals - rely on bodily cues like hunger pangs and levels of glucose or insulin in the blood to tell them to eat. |
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Running commentary on how well the needs and desires that we call "motivation" are being fulfilled. It also generates motives ( to hit ppl, be with other ppl, stay away from ppl) so the influences go both ways |
Emotions |
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Anger, sadness, joy fear and love are? They are wired into our nervous system, whereas others are either combinations of the basic level emotions (Blended emotions) or learned. |
Basic -Level emotions |
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All emotions presumably involve some sort of these: Different theories of emotion have described these components as interacting in different ways. |
Physiological arousal. (An increase or decrease in heart rate)
Behavioral expression. (running or punching) Conscious experience.- "I feel agitated!" |
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1- What Theory of emotion is this: Become aware of a stimulus that has relevance to one's well-being will generate arousal and a subjective emotional experience simultaneously; information about the stimulus is sent to both the sympathetic nervous system (the arousal) and the cortex (resulting in the subjects experience) at the same times. |
Cannon-Bard theory
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2 -What Theory of emotion is this: (i am afraid because i can feel my heart pounding and my legs running ) |
James-Lange theory
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Implication of the James-Lange theory is the idea that without arousal, i wouldn't be afraid.
The activity of facial muscles tells us whether we're happy or not. |
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Example : a cartoon may seam funnier if you watch it while Holding a pin with your teeth (activating smiling muscles) Vs holding it with your lips (activating frowning muscles) |
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3- What theory of emotion is this?
The quality of an emotional experience (anger, Fear,Jealousy) depends on how arousal is labeled. |
Stanley Schacter's Two Factor theory
(Believes arousal was the same physiologically, regardless of which emotion we might experience and what makes one emotions different from the other is the decision to call -label- it one emotion rather than another. ) |
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Deals with systematic, predictable changes in thinking and behavior over the lifespan.
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Developmental Psychology
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2 types of studies allow researchers to make inferences about how people change with age.
1- Involves comparing people of different ages at the same point in time. |
Cross-sectional studies
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Major problem with cross-sectional studies is age is confounded with Cohort (a group of ppl born in the same period of time) , which means...? |
that it cannot be determined whether differences across age groups are due to changes in age itself, or to differences in the periods of time during which the subject grew up. |
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Type of study that solves the confounding problem and Involves tracking the behavior of a single cohort over long period of time.
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Longitudinal studies
(studies often lose participants due to life circumstances (deaths, a move) which presents a threat to the validity of the studies' conclusions.) |
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Study in which people of different ages(as in the cross- sectional study) are followed over a long period of time ( as in the longitudinal studies)
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Cross-Sequential study
(This study Allows one to determine whether differences across age groups have to do with getting older, with cohorts, or with the time of testing.) |
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Theory that describes how children's thinking (their ability to solve problems) changes as they get older.
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Piaget's theory of cognitive development
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-years 0-2 -Lacks concept of Object performance |
Sensorimotor stage
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The understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be sensed.
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Object Permanence
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-Years 2-6 -when children develop Object performance they enter this stage -children don't use logical reasoning, but instead reason intuitively.-the world is what it appears (trouble solving problems that require conservation-next card) -very egocentric - next cards) |
Pre-operational stage.
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Pre-operational stage.
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Conservation
Example: cutting a hotdog in to 5 pieces if thought as more hotdog then if cut into 4 pieces. |
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Pre-operational stage. (If they can't see you, you can't see them) |
Egocentric
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-Years 6 - 12
-Think logically (using logical rules consistently), but only about things that are "concrete" (things they have had direct experience with or can easily imagine, Not abstract or just existing in thought.) -can solve conservation problems |
Concrete Operational stage
(trouble with algebra.... requires them to think about numbers they can't see x, y & z) |
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-years 12 +
-Become capable of the logic of science, can think abstractly. -can think abstractly, applying logical rules to envision things they haven't seen. |
Formal Operational
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Piaget says, Changes in a children's understanding of the world are the product of ?
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Disequilibrium.
A child understands the world in one particular way and then sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding. In order to make sense, the child has to change the way he/she understands the world by assimilating that experience into her scheme. |
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Assimilation Enough of these experiences with disequilibrium and she'll be forced to ACCOMMODATE - change her understanding of something (mass) to accurately reflect the way the world works |
Involves understanding events in terms of your current scheme (an understanding of how some aspect of the world works). |
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Theory that relies heavily on the idea that tension (or disequilibrium) is necessary for change.
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Erikson's theory of psycho-social development
-Believes that people go throughout 8 stages in their lives each of which involves a differentcrisis |
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Table 9.2 pg 65 8 stages
First 5 crisis stages involve? |
Conflict between what a child can do and other in his or her environment will allow him to do.
How children resolves the tension between what others want form him and what he or she can do determines what his personality will be like later on. |
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Last few stages involve conflict with one's self. In middle adulthood, ppl struggle with choices between: -Sharing wisdom and experience with other people, and.. -Taking care of only their own deteriorating physcial and mental abilities. |
-Generativity |
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3 Major areas of focus within the study of personality: |
1-Psychoanalytic 2-Humanistic Theories 3-Social - Cognitive |
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Theories that share the common beliefs that people's behavior is motivated largely by unconscious needs; that people feel conflict between getting those needs met, and social pressure to behave in ways that wouldn't meet those needs.
Unhealthy behavior is the product of that conflict. |
Psychoanalytic Theories - Freud Jung, Adler, Horney, Erikson
(1st Major areas of focus within the study of personality) |
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The motives behind Behavior |
Describes people as having two fundamental needs or motives behind behavior: sex and aggression. A child's personality develops as it figures out how to get its basic needs met while still making mom and dad happy |
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The structure behind personality, Freud saw personality as having 3 components.
1 - Id |
Refers to the biological part of our personality and, so, to the built in sexual and aggressive needs that drive our behavior.
Infants = pure id, express needs- act on impulses-withoutrestraint. They operate according to the pleasure principle |
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Do what feels good and do it now.
(A baby is a baby so its needs arnt going to be met with impulse behavior - just bc it cries for food doesn't mean food will show up- so it begins to think of how it can get its needs met in his environment -ego) |
The Pleasure Principle
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2 - Ego
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The rational, realistic part of our personality. It involves learning, problem-solving, and reasoning or operating according to the reality principle |
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Do what will get our needs met effectively, efficiently and without getting yourself hurt.
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The Reality Principle
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As a child gets punished and rewarded for various activities, it distills rules for "appropriate" behavior. These rules are the basis for _____?
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Superego
The social part of our personality that allows us to get along with other people. the child's behavior can now operate according to the 3rd principle, the morality principle. |
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When their are conflicts (tension) over how to behave between the id, ego and superego (impulsively, realistically or morally) there is ....._____? |
The Morality Principle
Anxiety |
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-When people develop intense and irrational fears of objects.
-When people distort reality in order to delude themselves into believing that something anxiety-provoking isn't happening. |
Phobias
(From the Freudian perspective, these objects are symbolic or metaphorical reminders of things the person wants, but can't allow themselves to have.) Defense Mechanisms |
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Periods of life defined by parts of the body that do the most to make you feel good.
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Psychosexual stages
(Freud saw personality developing through psychosexual stages) |
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Stage when children experience a lot of tension having to do with using their mouths, throats, and the entire digestive tract. (oral zone) -Moderate amount of tension here is good and helps develop the ego -But too little = child not developing his ego and too much results in compulsive behavior aimed at getting need met. (both = FIXATION) |
Oral Stage (birth - 2 yrs) Fixation - desire to build his life around getting certain needs met. |
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Stage when children come into conflict with parents over toilet training. Parents wanting the child to endure tension by resisting the urge to defecate. A moderate amount of tension over the fight to control bowel movements is good (helps ego develop), too little or too much results in a fixations- 2 types. |
Anal Stage( 2 - 4 years)
2 types of Anally fixated people. 1- anal retentive = ppl put off getting pleasure until the last moment and like to have everything in a proper place. 2- anal expulsive people = messy and rebellious |
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Stage child enters after Oral and Anal Stage BOYS- wake up one day realizing they have a penis and that it feels good and that they have a sexual fixation with mom and feel Castration anxiety because dad already has mom. (called Oedipus Complex)This is resolved my the boy giving up on mom and identifying with dad (becoming like) with is the source of boys superego. |
Phallic stage (around 4 it depends if its a girl or boy) GIRLS - wake up one day and realize their missing a penis, wish they had one(penis envy) and desire their father. girl isn't motivated to identify with mom resulting in Girls having weaker superegos then boys. |
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One of the sources of criticism about psychoanalysis is the idea that According to the Humanistic approach to personality?? (2nd Major areas of focus within the study of personality) |
People are bad - sexually and aggressively impulsive and selfish - and need to be restrained. People are basically good and the world would be better off if they were allowed to express heir true selves without restraints. |
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Often used as an example of this humanistic approach.
He describes personality in terms of a true self (the talents,thoughts, desires and feeling that we genuinely have), a self- concept (what we thing we're like) and an ideal self (what we would like to be). |
Carl Roger's self theory (person-centered theory)
-think of as the humanistic equivalents to the id, ego and superego |
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1- These parts of personality can be in conflict (incongruent) and cause anxiety which you can either protect yourself agains with defense mechanisms or try to reconcile through Self - Actualization, which is ? 2- What throws people (especially children) off the path of self-actualization is ? |
1- Accepting who you are as part of your self concept and adjusting your ideals to reflect that, in other words being all you can be. 2- Conditions of worth imposed by parents and others. (send a message to the child that he/she can only be valued by doing what the parent wants leaving the child to deny his or her true self in order to pleasure the parents) |
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3rd way of explaining consistency in behavior in terms of personality focuses on ? |
Cognition
(3rd Major areas of focus within the study of personality) |
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One important contribution to the Cognitionapproach is idea of?? |
Reciprocal determinism
Which is, How people think, how people behave, and what their environment is like all interact to influence the consistency of behavior. |
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An approach to personality that is not so much about big theories as it is about Measuring the many, many ways in which people differ, reducing those many ways down to a more manageable subset, and using measurements of those characteristics to predict actual behavior.
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Individual-difference approach
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What is a statistical procedure used to identify traits for which scores correlate highly with each other of which resulted in the Big 5?
The Big Five personality traits represents? |
Factor analysis - an attempts to reduce all those ways of describing people down to just a few fundamental dimensions of personality. |
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Openness -inquiring, independent, curious
Conscientiousness - dependable, self-controlled Extraversion - outgoing, socially adaptive Agreeableness - conforming, likable Neuroticism - excitability, anxiousness |
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Patterns of thoughts, feelings or behaviors that interfere with a persons ability to function at work, in a relationship, or at leisure. The branch of psychology that deals with psychological disorders. |
Abnormality / Disorder |
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A American Psychiatric Association Manual of a description of about 300 disorders. They are different patterns of abnormal behavior that have been grouped together in categories in order to make diagnosis simpler and more reliable then it otherwise would be.
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DSM - IV - TR
(The diagnostic and statistical manual) |
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A class of disorders involving inexplicable or unusual feelings of dread, fearfulness, or terror as it's defining features.
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(Topic 1 of Psychological Disorders) |
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Disorder that Involves feeling persistent anxiety, but your unaware of its source.
Physical symptoms: sweaty palms, shaking or nervous habits like nail biting |
Generalized anxiety disorder
(free-floating anxiety) |
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Disorder that Involves unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of terror that have a sudden onset.
Physical Symptoms: racing heart beat, breathlessness, dizziness, and other signs of intense fear. |
Panic Disorder
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-Intense and irrational fears of specific objects or events. -Repetitive thoughts (obsessions) that provoke anxiety and repetitive behaviors (compulsions). |
-Phobias -Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder OCD Examples: obs - preoccupation with germs and dirt, impending disaster or neatness. comp - checking door locks, hand washing or toothbrushing rituals, repeatedly checking appliances and lights are off when leaving home. |
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Characterized by depression, mania, or both.
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(Topic 2 of Psychological Disorders) |
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-Disorder characterized by feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and discouragement (all lasting at least two weeks), and a loss of interest in pleasurable activities. ??
-Disorders that involve swinging back and forward between states of depression and states of heightened excitement and risk taking optimism called Mania |
Major Depressive Disorder
Bipolar Disorders |
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Disorder that includes as a feature the fragmentation (the state of being broken into separate parts) of personality.
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(Topic 3 of Psychological Disorders) AKA: the individual behaves as if one part of his or her experience (consciousness, memories, identity) is separated from other parts (i.e., has " dissociated") |
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Being unable to remember personally relevant info.
(this is typically brought about by stressful events; the memory loss can't be attributable to ordinary forgetfulness) |
Dissociative Amnesia
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Someone who travels away from home or work suddenly and unexpectedly, can't recall his or her past, and becomes confused about his or her identity, sometimes assuming a new identity.
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Dissociative Fugue
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Disorder that is characterized by the expression of 2 or more distinctly different identities from the same person.
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Dissociative Identity Disorder
(used to be called Multiple personality disorder) |
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A disorder involving symptoms of psychosis (i.e., hallucinations [false sensation like hearing fake voices or seeing non existing objects] and delusions [false thoughts, thinking your MJ] )
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(Topic 4 of Psychological Disorders) Symptoms: These people have trouble distinguishing between the real world and their own fantasy and imagination. Incoherent speech, unusual behavior like wild thoughts and actions, a motionless position, and dull, flat emotions. |
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Type of Schizophrenia:
Exhibits delusions of grandeur (believing themselves to be important or usually famous people) or delusions of persecution (believing that they will be harmed by others) Have auditory hallucinations that reinforce the theme of their delusion. |
Paranoid Schizophrenics
They often have auditor hallucinations that reinforce the theme of their delusions ( hearing a voice telling them they'r being watched) |
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Type of Schizophrenia: |
Disorganized Schizophrenics
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Type of Schizophrenia: |
Catatonic Schizophrenia
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Common Catatonic symptoms
1-One puts their limbs in some position and leaves them there for long periods of time. 2-Senselessly repeating back words someone else has just said. 3-Repeating other people's movements. |
1 - Waxy Flexibility ("catalepsy") 3 - Echopraxia |
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Type of Schizophrenia: |
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
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Central feature of this disorder is that the individual has physical symptoms usually associated with some sort of disease or physical disorder, but the symptoms can't be explained in terms of a medical condition.
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(Topic 5 of Psychological Disorders) |
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Disorder that involve impaired motor functioning (like paralysis) or impaired sensory functioning ( like blindness) that can't be attributed to any neurological problems, but could be attributed to a psychological factor (like stress).
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Conversion Disorders
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Someone that doesn't necessarily have and actual physical problems, but is nevertheless pre-occupied with bodily symptoms of disease to illness, is afraid he or she has a serious medical problem and can't be reassured by medical doctors. |
Hypochondriasis |
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Characterized by patterns of behavior or thinking (personality) that are clearly and substantially inconsistent with the expectations of one's culture.
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(Topic 6 of Psychological Disorders) |
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A person who is extremely suspicious and distrustful has what personality?
( But is not delusional like the paranoid schizophrenic personality) |
Paranoid personality.
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Someone who tramples on the right of others, is impulsive, and lacks a conscience has what personality?
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Antisocial personality.
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Someone who has trouble maintaining relationships and has a wide fluctuations in both self-image and emotional behaviors has what disorder?
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Borderline personality disorder.
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Someone who needs undue admiration and praise, is pre-occupied with fantasies of success, accomplishment, and recognition, feels instilled to a special treatment, and lacks empathy for others how what personality?
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Narcissistic personality
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4 basic approaches for explaining where abnormality behavior comes from:
1- Focuses on physiological or biological reasons, the effects of drugs and alcohol, toxins, physical injury, or genetics. 2 - Focuses on the possibility that unconscious conflicts, rooted in childhood, cause anxiety that is dealt with in a maladaptive way. |
Medical Approach
Psychoanalytic Approach. |
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3-Explains abnormal behavior in terms of abnormal patterns of thinking.
ex: depressed people explain success as something outside themselves (luck) and failure as something inside themselves (stupidity or lack of talent) |
Cognitive approach.
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4- The problem behavior itself is the problem; that is psychological disorders are not merely symptoms of some other underlying problem.
(disorders are learned behaviors; they've been classically conditioned or reinforced in someway) |
Learning or behavioral approach.
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The focus of any treatment for psychological disorders is ....?
Medical approached = Psychological approach = |
Changing a Maladaptive pattern of behavior or thinking. -relays on drugs and surgery -emphasizes a relationship between the client and the therapist (including 1- psychoanalysis, 2- humanistic therapies,3 behavior modification, and 4 cognitive therapies) |
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According to _______ , Problems arise when urges (sexual ones) come up against social pressure to squelch them(mostly from parents). -A child who might not have enough "ego" yet to deal with this, will generate anxiety which the child avoids by ....? -The Goal of Psychoanalytic therapies, is to ...? |
1 Psychoanalytic thinking (by Freud) Repressing the conflict (i.e., keeping the conflict unconscious) |
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One method of making the conflict conscious, which Involves having the individual relax as much as possible and say whatever comes to mind is ? |
Free Association Objective: to provide conditions that will allow the person to gain access to original conflict so he/she can get insight by using those formerly repressed memories to understand current behavior. |
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Repressing memories takes lots of energy, therefore a lot of energy will become available when the conflict is no longer being forced out of consciousness. This "liberation" of energy is called? When a client shows expressions towards the therapist that indicate feelings linked to earlier relationships this is called...? |
Catharsis Transference - A clue that therapist might use to figure out what clients are repressing |
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Therapy that is also geared toward helping people achieve insight into the causes of their problematic behaviors, but emphasis is more on what's happening in life now and what the client wants for the future. (not on the childhood) |
2 Humanistic therapies. (prefer the term client (rogers) , vs psychoanalyst tend to use patient) |
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Carl Roger's extremely influential version of a humanistic therapy, is non-directive; rather than offering interpretations of the clients behavior, these therapist assumer that people can achieve insight on their own if given the proper environment. |
Client-centered therapy. |
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In order to help the client recognize his or her true goals, it is up to the therapist to provide unconditional positive regard and an environment in which others (here the therapist) are empathetic, accepting and genuine. To accomplish this Rogers introduced the technique of? |
Active Listening (which involves: paraphrasing what the client says, asking for clarification and elaboration, and "reflecting" the clients feeling. |
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Therapy assumes that something going on inside an individual is responsible for abnormal behavior. (ppl behave abnormal bc of the way they think)
BUT, here there is no assumption that anxiety or conflict is the cause of the problem behavior |
3 Cognitive Therapies.
Aim to change the individuals thinking so that he sees the world accurately and rationally. Allowing the person to react to people and event in a rational and productive way with healthy behavior. |
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Therapy that relies on using principle of classical and operant conditioning to change problem behaviors directly. Is NOT aimed to achieve insight or self-awareness or a change in thinking.
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4 Behavioral therapies
Either: A, abnormal behaviors were conditioned to begin with (throwing tantrums CR) and now can be un-conditioned or B, they weren't originally conditioned (bed wetting) but can nevertheless be eliminated through operant or classical conditioning now. |
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Involves conditioning a new response that's incompatible with an old response.
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Counterconditioning.
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A procedure where anxiety is gradually replaced with relaxation.
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Systematic desensitizaiton.
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Where a person goes straight into the fear-provoking situation without intermediate steps.
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Flooding
(a variant of systematic desensitization) |
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An unpleasant response becomes associated with what would normally be a pleasant activity.
Ex: treat alcoholism by paring a drink CS with a drug US that makes drinker nautilus UR and CR. drinker should become nauseous when anticipating drinking (avoiding alcohol) |
Aversive Conditioning.
** Problem biting nails so you put paint on them that makes you nations when you taste your nails |
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The individual is given some sort of token (chip, gold star) whenever the desirable behavior is performed. Once individual has accumulated enough of them, the tokens can be "cashed in" for a tangible reward (food , the zoo) |
Token Economy (Type of therapy based on principle of operant conditioning - rewarding desirable behavior and eliminating rewards for undesirable.) |
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Rely on drugs or surgery, and alters the way the brain functions.
-Anti-depressant drugs = prevent the reuptake of serotonin (**serotonin inhibitors Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft) -Anti-anxiety drugs = reduce arousal by depressing activity in the central nervous system (*** e.g., Librium or Valium) |
Biological or Medical Therapies.
-Anti-psychotic drugs = treat schizophrenia, blocks the operation of the neurotransmitter dopamine (which is overabundant in ppl with psychotic symptoms) - *** (e.g., Clozapine or Thorazine) |
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Has to do with how the behavior of individuals is influenced by other people.
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Social psychology
Broken down in to 3 areas: social cognition, social influences and social relationships. |
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Refers to how we process information about other people.
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Social cognition.
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Deals with types of explanations people generate for others' behavior and how those explanations come about.
(there are 2 types of attributions - explanations- that a person could come up with to explain anthers behavior) |
Attribution theory
(The type of attribution we identify for others behavior then presumably influences our behavior) |
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Explain behavior in terms of factors inside a person.
(personality, intelligence, maturity , and so forth) |
Dispositional attributions
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Explain behavior in terms of factors outside the person.
(such as luck, interference for other people, social etiquette) |
Situational attributions
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* This is One prominent bias ( irrational way ) in how people explain behavior |
Actor-observer difference.
(this is due in part to the actor being more aware to how his or her behavior changes from one situation to another) |
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Theory that if you behave in a way that's inconsistent with your attributes, the inconsistency will produce dissonance (incongruity) , an unpleasant state of tension. * This is a 2nd way attributions can be less then rational in explaining others behavior |
Cognitive dissonance theory.
(Since you can't undo your tension causing behavior, you feel compelled to explain what you did to yourself in a way that will change your attitude so that it is more consistent with your behavior therefore reduce the dissonance. This allows you to feel comfortable again.) |
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About the direct and indirect pressures exerted on people by others to change someone's attitudes or behaviors.
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Social influence.
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-Technique of getting someone to comply with a small request before asking him or her to comply with a larger request. -Technique of making a request that is so big it'll be turned down before making a smaller, more reasonable request. -Getting someone to commit to doing something, then increasing the effort or cost required to fulfill the commitment, |
(Illustrates that our behavior can change our attitudes) Foot-in-the-door Technique Door-in-the-face Technique Lowballing |
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A form of influence that has to do with changing behavior in order to make it consistent with group norms? |
Conformity (All subjects but 1 where instructed to give the wrong answer. the 1 subject conformed to he wrong answer 2.3 of the time.) The Asch Study |
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Type of behavior in the Asch Study.
Pressure to comply with a norm (even one thats obviously wrong) comes from concern about being rejected form the group. |
Normative Social Influence.
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What other people do simply provides information about how to behave.
(unsure if someone made a joke or not, you might wait to see whether other people laugh before you laugh) |
Informational social influence.
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Most direct form of social influence is ________: doing what an authoritative figure tells you to do.
Who demonstrated that people can be incredibly susceptible to the demands of authority. |
Obedience |
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Aggression - involves behaviors that are intended to hurt others.
Aggression is always the product of frustration and frustration always leads to aggression according to this. |
Frustration-aggression hypothesis.
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Is normally at a much higher level for men than in women and appears to lower the thresholds for aggression: People and animals with higher levels of this are more easily provoked to aggression |
Testosterone |
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The presence of _______ leads to higher levels of aggression among people who have already been provoked. This phenomenon is called the ? |
Aggressive Cues (such as guns, knives, black clothes, or aggressive behaviors by others) Weapon Effect |
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Behavior that is aimed at unselfishly helping others. Research into helping behavior was catalyzed by the murder of ? In a emergency, increasing the number of witnesses, decreases the likelihood that any of them will help. this diffusion of responsibility leased to the ....? |
Altruism Kitty Genovese (women who was raped and murdered in NYC despite the fact that there were 38 witnesses of which none called police until after) Bystander Effect. |
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According to this theory our goal in life is to maximize our rewards and minimize our costs (the minimax principle)
AKA: if helping someone will benefit us more than it will hurt us, we'll help. |
Social-exchange theory.
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2 norms that would encourage helping behavior:
1 - We're obligated to help people who need our help. |
Social responsibility norm.
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2 - We're obligated to help those who have helped us.
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Reciprocity norm.
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Helping behavior has evolved. The idea that those of our ancestors who were genetically predisposed to help their relatives would also have been helping to pass on their own genes. Over time their helping Genes would have spread throughout the human species. |
Kin Selection Hypothesis |
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Any measure of a psychological characteristic mist be reliable and valid.
Reliability... Test-retest reliability |
Refers to the consistency of people's scores on a test..
Refers to the consistency of scores across administrations of the test. (do people get about the same score the 2nd time as they did the first?) Researchers developing the test compute a correlation coefficient between the 2 sets of scores. |
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Coefficients larger than ___ are generally considered adequate evidence of reliability.
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+.70
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How well does the test correlate with itself?
(the reliability of self report measures is typically described in terms of ?? ) This is often assessed as ....? |
Internal consistency
Split-half reliability |
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Measure of reliability.
Referes to how well a test measures what its supposed to measure (if reliability of a psychological test is low, it can't possibly be measuring what its supposed to) |
Cronbach's alpha
Validity (BUT being reliable is NOT guarantee that the test is valid too) |
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Whether the test looks as though it's measuring what it's supposed to. (not adequate for most psychological test)
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Face validity. (or content validity)
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Refers to how well scores on the test predict actual behavior of the type the test is supposed to measure.
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Predictive validity.
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- Refers to whether scores on the questionnaire are related in expected ways. (i.e., positively or negatively) to scores on other questionnaires.
- Test given to a large number of people with some known characteristic ( such as age, sex or race) |
-Construct validity.
-Standardized (- in order to make it possible to determine how well a person has performed relative to others who have taken the test.) |
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When conducting an experiment or correlation study (the most common types of psychological research) , the researcher virtually always measures behavior in a ____ of people drawn from some larger _____ |
- Sample - Population |
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The Samples scores can be described precisely using several ?
Most common occurring score? Score about which half of all scores fall ? The arithmetic average of all scores? An index of how widely scattered scores tend to be around the mean? |
Descriptive statistics Median Mean Standard Deviation |
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Allow you to make inferences about populations based on the characteristics of your sample.
To do this researchers use ? |
Inferential statistics.
Test of statistical significance. (if a relationship or a difference is statistically significant, it simply means that it wasn't likely to have happened by chance if their weren't a relationship -or difference- in the population your sample came from) |
