Ib Psychology Hl - Learning Outcomes (With Options)

Front 1

BLA: outline principles that define the biological level of analysis and explain how they may be demonstrated in research

Back 1

1) Cognitions, emotions, and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems. Harlow (1948) with Phineas Gage, Money (1974) as counter

2) Animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior. Martinez and Kastner (1991), Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972)

3) Patterns of behavior can be inherited, behavior is innate because it is genetically based. Minnesota Twin Study, Bouchard et al. (1990), Grove et al. (1990)

Front 2

BLA: discuss how and why particular research methods are used in the biological level of analysis

Back 2

1) Animal studies to make generalizations with humans. Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972), Martinez and Kesner (1991).

2) Twin studies to determine biological basis of behaviors through genetics and concordance rates. Minnesota Twin Study, Bouchard et al. (1990), Grove et al. (1990)

3) Case studies for exceptional cases to study, Harlow (1848) with Phineas Gage, Milner and Scoville (1957) with HM.

Front 3

BLA: discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis

Back 3

1) Money (1974), no withdrawal, no debriefing, no confidentiality, no informed consent (use of minors), harm of participants, deception

2) Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972), rats were harmed and left to live in a deprived environment, could not give consent or understand the study, ethics of animal testing

3) Schater and Singer (1962), testing factor theory of emotion (emotion arises from combination of cognition and arousal) with adrenaline, deceived patients. Participants were debriefed, and deception was revealed and justified

Front 4

BLA: explain one study related to the localization of function in the brain

Back 4

1) Harlow (1848), Phineas Gage and frontal lobe, area damaged controls personality and inhibitions

2) Broca (1861), patient ‘Tan,’ Broca’s area responsible for ability to produce coherent speech, found in post-mortem autopsy

3) Wernicke (1874), area in the brain responsible for comprehension of speech, patients with damage here can still speak, but it is meaningless

Front 5

BLA: using one or more examples, explain the effects of neurotransmission on human behavior

Back 5

1) Serotonin affects sleep, libido, associated with depression and aggression if deficient, secreted by pineal glands. Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999) higher levels during pilgrimage caused hallucinations, changed perception

2) Acetylcholine involved in learning and memory formation, Martinez and Kesner (1991) with rats running mazes, released into synaptic cleft

Front 6

BLA: using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behavior

Back 6

1) Adrenaline, secreted by the adrenal glands, responsible for fight or flight response, deals with external threats, increases oxygen to brain. Schacter and Singer (1962), those not told about adrenaline had stronger emotions

2) Oxytocin (also a neurotransmitter) secreted by the pituitary, stimulates lactation/contractions, promotes maternal feelings, trust, attachment. Ditzen (2009), reduces stress in arguing couples, positive communication encouraged

Front 7

BLA: discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

Back 7

1) Bidirectional relationship

2) Brain plasticity, environment can rearrange neurons through learning, Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972), deprivation in rats reduced cortex thickness and made frontal lobe lighter than rats stimulated

3) Mirror neurons reacting to environment change brian activity, Iacoboni (2004), looked at human faces while in fMRI, asked to imitate, stimulated limbic system, activated pleasure centers in brain

Front 8

BLA: examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior

Back 8

1) Memory and brain function can be affected by physiology, localization

2) HM studied by Milner and Scoville (1957), damage to hippocampus of epileptic, caused amnesia, cannot form new memories

3) Clive Wearing by Sacks (2007), damage to hippocampus by viral infection, sever anterograde and retrograde memory loss, kept skills but memory span of just seconds

Front 9

BLA: discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationships between biological factors and behavior

Back 9

1) fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), uses magnetic fields to produce 3D image of brain, can distinguish between tissue types, can see structures. Excellent resolution, non invasive, can be used repeatedly, but correlation without causation, false positives, cannot be used with metal objects (pacemakers, etc.), used by Milner and Scoville (1957) to study HM's brain damage

2) PET (positron emission topography), injection of radioactive glucose shows brain activity, colored display of levels. Good resolution, can track ongoing activity, invasive, expensive, takes longer, limited number of injections. Used by Davidson (2004) to study gamma waves in meditators

Front 10

BLA: with reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behavior?

Back 10

1) Bouchard and McGue (1981), closer kinship shows higher intelligence correlations, supports influence of genetics on intelligence (and behavior)

2) Bouchard et al. (1990), Minnesota Twin Study, MZ and DZ twins together and apart, similarity rates around 74%, 70% of intelligence is genetic, 30% environmental, supports role of genetics

3) Scarr and Weinberg (1976), trans-racial adoption study of parent and child IQ correlations, no significant correlations, environment is more important, does not support genetics

4) Brunner et al. (1993), studying Dutch family with aggression disorder (MAOA point mutation), does affect behavior

5) Conclusion, genetics affect behavior to a large extent, but environmental factors also play a large role

Front 11

BLA: examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior

Back 11

1) Disgust reactions prolongs life, leads to passing on genes

2) Fessler (2006) studying pregnant women, first trimester more sensitive to disgust than third trimester, protects fetus during crucial stages for evolution

3) Curtis et al. (2004), younger and female more sensitive, older and male less sensitive. Young female's bodies affect fetus's development more than the latter, lowers one reproduction finished (age)

Front 12

BLA: discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior

Back 12

1) Confidentiality (Clive Wearing), privacy, security, protection from harm, withdrawal, deception, etc. as ethical considerations in all research

2) Researchers must also prevent family drama from paternity tests, or social stigma from disorders, Brunner et al. (1993)

3) Money (1974), violated most ethical considerations, based on whether sex (genetics) is more important in behavior than environment

Front 13

CLA: outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis and explain how they may be demonstrated in research

Back 13

1) Humans are information processors, and mental representations guide behavior. Attentional processes by Stroop (1935)

2) Mental processes can be studied scientifically by developing theories and using various research models. Memory models (multi-store) by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968), working memory model by Baddely (1966) with support from Baddely and Hitch (1974)

3) Social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes. Schemas can influence learning and knowledge, Bartlett (1932) and schema theory, Cole and Scribner (1974) and Kpelle children's education and learning

Front 14

CLA: discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis

Back 14

1) Experiments to determine cause and effect relationship by manipulating variables. Loftus and Palmer (1974)

2) Case studies for exceptional cases to study, Sacks (2007) with Clive Wearing, Milner and Scoville (1957) with HM

3) Use of brain imaging techniques to determine covert processes in cognitive psychology, fMRI with HM study, PET for Davidson (2004) to study gamma waves in meditating monks, Iacoboni (2004) to study mirror neurons

Front 15

CLA: discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis

Back 15

1) Protection of participants, consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, no deception, debriefing

2) Sacks (2007) with Clive Wearing, HM by Milner and Scoville, Genie by Curtiss (1981), studying without ability to consent, confidentiality

3) Speisman et al. (1964) for causing distress to participants

Front 16

CLA: evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies

Back 16

1) Schema theory, the cognitive theory stating that humans are active processors of information who therefore integrate new information into existing, stored information (schemas)

2) Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts supports schemas affecting memory, but this is less valid due to a poorly controlled experiment (not sufficiently specific with instructions). Still provides insight into cultural distortion

3) Anderson and Pichert (1978), influence of schema processing on encoding and retrieval of memories. Showed a change between buyer and burglar schemas, but experiment had poor ecological validity

4) Schema theory does not explain how knowledge is stored, still requires more research

Front 17

CLA: evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies

Back 17

1) Multi-store memory model by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) has sensory, short term, and long term memory stores. Based on idea of brain as a computer, progresses linearly between stores

2) Model supported by Baddely (1966), investigated encoding with words semantically and acoustically similar and different, better recall of acoustically different words than semantically similar. Short term memories encoded acoustically, low ecological validity and simplistic experiment

3) Working memory model by Baddely and Hitch (1974) with central executive with slave systems. More complicated, but does not explain the process of memory too well

4) Supported by Baddely and Hitch (1974) having participants memorizing numbers while multitasking, impairment was not devastating, supports STM as there is more than one store, explains why people can multitask

Front 18

CLA: explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

Back 18

1) Biological factors in relation to localized brain functions affect cognitive processes. Highlights interaction between physiology and memory

2) Sacks (2007), study of Clive Wearing, viral infection damaged hippocampus, which is responsible for forming new memories. Anterograde and retrograde amnesia

3) HM, by Milner and Scoville (1957), young epileptic had operation, removed temporal lobe and hippocampus, studied by MRI scans. Anterograde and some retrograde amnesia, cannot create new memories, working memory intact with childhood memories

Front 19

CLA: discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

Back 19

1) Effect of sociocultural factors (schemas and methods for learning) affect resulting memories, may produce emotional reaction or selective memory

2) Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts, cultural schemas may distort memories and reduce their accuracy

3) Brown and Kulik (1977), cultural factors may influence flashbulb memory formation, highlight certain memories

4) Cole and Scribner (1974), Kpelle and American children's differences in education changing how they remember information

Front 20

CLA: with reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable?

Back 20

1) Memories can be huge in volume, but are changeable and unreliable to a large extent

2) Loftus and Palmer (1974) eyewitness testimonies, maybe be easily altered through suggestions in leading questions

3) Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts, cultural schemas may influence accuracy of memories, thus making them unreliable and highly subjective

Front 21

CLA: discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes

Back 21

1) Brain imaging technologies may be used to examine covert processes in cognitive research

2) fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), uses magnetic fields to produce 3D image of brain, can distinguish between tissue types, can see structures. Excellent resolution, non invasive, can be used repeatedly, but correlation without causation, false positives, cannot be used with metal objects (pacemakers, etc.), used by Milner and Scoville (1957) to study HM's brain damage and memory loss

2) PET (positron emission topography), injection of radioactive glucose shows brain activity, colored display of levels. Good resolution, can track ongoing activity, invasive, expensive, takes longer, limited number of injections. Used by Davidson (2004) to study gamma waves in meditators

3) Significance of brain scans, but all have disadvantages

Front 22

CLA: to what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?

Back 22

1) Emotions are somewhat dependent on or are initiated by physiological or cognitive factors

2) Two-factor theory of emotion, requires physiological arousal by the situation, emotional interpretation (appraisal) and subsequent labelling of the arousal as an emotion. Support by Schacter and Singer (1962) and study of adrenaline and appraisal of emotions, those knowing of the situation had less intense emotions

3) Lazarus (1990), theory of emotional appraisal, emotion provoking stimulus triggers appraisal followed by arousal (reverse of above). Organism will assess meaning and decide how to react

4) Support for appraisal theory by Speisman et al. (1964), showed video of unpleasant genital surgery, narrative influenced emotions. Framing of a situation will influence appraisal and changed reactions

5) Cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion to a great extent

Front 23

CLA: evaluate one theory of how emotions may affect one cognitive process

Back 23

1) Emotions may influence memory formation and retrieval processes

2) Flashbulb memories by Brown and Kulik (1977) are particularly vivid, intense emotions may influence their formation. Still, this may be from post-event rehearsal, as people may not understand significance during event. High ecological validity, but cannot be generalized past Americans, very retrospective, no quantitative data

3) Valid theory in some ways, but poor experiment and possible explanations against it. Theory may be correct to a limited extent