Human Species Ch. 1-4 Test Review

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Hominidae

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The taxonomic family to which humans belong; also includes other, now extinct, bipedal relatives.

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Hominids

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Colloquial term for members of the family Hominidae, which includes all bipedal hominoids back to the divergence from African great apes.

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Bipedalism

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On two feet; walking habitually on two legs.

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Evolution

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A change in the genetic structure of a population. The term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species.

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Adaptation

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An anatomical, physiological, or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. Adaptations result from evolutionary change (specifically, as a result of natural selection).

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Microevolution

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Small genetic changes that occur within a species. A human example is the variation seen in the different ABO blood types.

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Macroevolution

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Large-scale changes that occur in populations only after many generations, such as the appearance of a new species (speciation).

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Culture

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Behavioral aspects of human adaptation, including technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage patterns, and social roles. Culture is a set of learned behaviors transmitted from one generation to the next through learning and not by biological or genetic mechanisms.

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Biocultural Evolution

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The mutual, interactive evolution of human biology and culture; the concept that biology makes culture possible and that developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution; a basic concept in understanding the unique components of human evolution.

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Anthropology

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The field of inquiry that studies human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology; includes cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics, and physical, or biological, anthropology.

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Ethnography

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Detailed descriptive studies of human societies. In cultural anthropology, an ethnography is traditionally the study of a non-Western society.

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Applied Anthropology

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The practical application of anthropological and archaeological theories and techniques. For example, many biological anthropologists work in the public health sector.

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Artifacts

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Objects or materials made or modified for use by hominids. The earliest artifacts tend to be tools made of stone or occasionally bone.

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Paleoanthropology

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The interdisciplinary approach to the study of earlier hominids, their chronology, physical structure, archaeological remains, habitats, etc.

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Genetics

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The study of gene structure and action, and the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to offspring. Genetic mechanisms are the foundation for evolutionary change.

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Primatology

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The study of the biology and behavior of nonhuman primates (prosimians, monkeys, and apes).

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Osteology

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The study of skeletal material. Human osteology focuses on the interpretation of skeletal remains from archaeological sites, skeletal anatomy, bone physiology, and growth and development. Some of the same techniques are used in paleoanthropology to study early hominids.

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Paleopathology

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The branch of osteology that studies the evidence of disease and injury in human skeletal (or, occasionally, mummified) remains from archaeological sites.

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Forensic Anthropology

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An applied anthropological approach dealing with legal matters. Forensic anthropologists work with coroners, police, and others in identifying and analyzing human remains.

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Science

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A body of knowledge gained through observation and experimentation; from the Latin scientia, meaning knowledge.

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Empirical

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Relying on experiment or observation; from the Latin empiricus, meaning experienced.

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Scientific Method

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An approach to research whereby a question is asked, a hypothesis (or provisional explanation) is stated, and that hypothesis is tested by collecting and analyzing data.

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Hypothesis

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(sing., hypothesis) A provisional explanation of a phenomenon. Hypotheses require verification or falsification through testing.

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Ethnocentric

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Viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one's own culture. Ethnocentrism often results in other cultures being seen as inferior to one's own.

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Relativistic

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Pertaining to relativism; viewing entities as they relate to something else. Cultural relativism is the view that cultures have merits within their own historical and environmental contexts and that they shouldn't be judged through comparison with one's own culture.

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Fixity of Species

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The notion that species, once created, can never change; an idea diametrically opposed to theories of biological evolution.

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Taxonomy

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The branch of science concerned with the rules of classifying organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships.

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Catastrophism

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the earth's geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events. (Cuvier)

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Uniformatarianism

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The theory that the earth's features are the result of long-term processes that continue to operate in the present as they did in the past. Elaborated on by Lyell, this theory opposed catastrophism and contributed strongly to the concept of immense geological time.

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Variation

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Inherited diff. among individuals
basis of evolutionary change

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Nucleus

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A structure (organelle) found in all eukaryotic cells. The nucleus contains chromosomes (nuclear DNA).

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Somatic Cells

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All the cells in the body except gametes (eggs and sperm).

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Gametes

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Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals), developed from precursor cells in ovaries and testes.

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DNA Molecule

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(deoxyribonucleic acid) The double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code, a set of instructions for producing bodily structures and functions. DNA is a main component of chromosomes.

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Nucleotide

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Basic units of the DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of four DNA bases.

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DNA Replication

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To duplicate. The DNA molecule is able to make copies of itself.

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Protein Synthesis

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The assembly of chains of amino acids into functional protein molecules. The process is directed by DNA.

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Protein

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Three-dimensional molecules that serve a wide variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules.

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Amino Acid Molecule

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Small molecules that are the components of proteins.

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Gene

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A sequence of DNA bases that specifies the order of amino acids in an entire protein, a portion of a protein, or any functional product. A gene may be made up of hundreds or thousands of DNA bases organized into coding and noncoding segments.

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Autosomes

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All chromosomes except the sex chromosomes.

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Sex Chromosomes

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In mammals, the X and Y chromosomes.

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Mitosis

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Simple cell division; the process by which somatic cells divide to produce two identical daughter cells.

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Meiosis

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Cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes. Meiosis involves two divisions and results in four daughter cells, each containing only half the original number of chromosomes. These cells can develop into gametes

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Recombination

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Sometimes called crossing over; the exchange of genetic material between partner chromosomes during meiosis.

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Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

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A method of producing thousands of copies of a DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase.

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Recombinant DNA Technology

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A process in which genes from the cell of one species are transferred to somatic cells or gametes of another species.

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Cloning

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Organisms that are genetically identical to another organism. The term may also be used in referring to genetically identical DNA segments, molecules, and cells.

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Human Genome Project

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An international effort aimed at sequencing and mapping the entire human genome, completed in 2003.

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Principal of Segregation (1st)

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Gregor Mendel
Genes(allels) occur in pairs(because chromosomes occur in pairs)

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Dominent

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Describing a trait governed by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another, different allele (i.e., in heterozygotes). Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles in heterozygotes. (This is the definition of complete dominance.)

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Recessive

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Describing a trait that isn't expressed in heterozygotes; also refers to the allele that governs the trait. For a recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies of it (i.e., the individual must be homozygous).

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Locus

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(pl., loci) (lo´-kus, lo-sigh´) The position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with gene, but this usage is technically incorrect.

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Allele

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Alternate forms of a gene. Alleles occur at the same locus on partner chromosomes and thus govern the same trait. However, because they are slightly different, their action may result in different expressions of that trait. The term is sometimes used synonymously with gene.

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Homozygous

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Having the same allele at the same locus on both members of a chromosome pair.

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Heterozygous

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Having different alleles at the same locus on members of a chromosome pair.

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Genotype

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The genetic makeup of an individual. Genotype can refer to an organism's entire genetic makeup or to the alleles at a particular locus.

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Phenotype

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The observable or detectable physical characteristics of an organism; the detectable expressions of genotypes.

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Mendelian Traits

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Characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus. Examples include many blood types, such as ABO. Many genetic disorders, including sickle-cell anemia and Tay-Sachs disease, are also Mendelian traits.

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Blood Alleles/types

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Three alleles A,B,O
Four types

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Codominence

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The expression of two alleles in heterozygotes. In this situation, neither allele is dominant or recessive; thus, both influence the phenotype.

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Polygenic Traits

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Referring to traits that are influenced by genes at two or more loci. Examples of such traits are stature, skin color, and eye color. Many polygenic traits are also influenced by environmental factors

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Mitochondrial DNA

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mtDNA
inherited only from mother
mutation rates used for consructing relationships

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Mutations

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Change in DNA only way new variations are produced
1st stage in evolutionary process

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Factors that produce and redistribute variation

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Mutation (1)
Gene Flow (2)
Genetic Drift (3)
(founder effect)
Recombination (4

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Gene Flow

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Exchange of genes between populations.

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Genetic Drift

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Evolutionary changes that is, changes in allele frequencies produced by random factors. Genetic drift is a result of small population size.

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DNA Level and Chromosome Level

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Mutation is the evolutionary factor

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Cell Level

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Recombination is the evol. factor
(Sex cells only)

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Organism

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Natural selection is the evol. factor

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Population

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Drift and gene flow are the evol. factors

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Predisposition

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The capacity or inclination to do something. (behavioral modification due to prexisting traits)