Human Phys. And Anat. Ii

Front 1

Anatomy

Back 1

Study of the shape and the structure of the body and its part

Front 2

Physiology

Back 2

Study of how the body and its part work or function macroscopically and microscopically

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Levels of organization

Back 3

Organ systems> Organs > Tissues > Cells

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Cells

Back 4

smallest living unit

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Tissues

Back 5

Collection of cells of the same type

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Organs

Back 6

Collection of two or more types of tissues put together into structures to perform a specific function

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Organ systems

Back 7

Collection of organs that work together in order to accomplish a particular task

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Survival needs

Back 8

Nutrients, oxygen, water and Homeostasis

Front 9

Nutrients

Back 9

Chemicals needed for cell building and energy
Carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, lipids and minerals

Front 10

Oxygen

Back 10

Required for chemical reaction
Required to produce ATP(cellular respiration)

Front 11

Water

Back 11

60-80% body weight
Needed for many metabolic reactions

Front 12

Homeostasis

Back 12

Stable body temperature
Maintain blood pressure/plasma pH
Maintain water balance
Stable blood/sugar levels

Front 13

Primary cells/ Tissue classes

Back 13

200 types of cell divided into 4 general categories
Muscle,connective, epithelial, nerve

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Muscle

Back 14

Contraction, generation of force

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Connective

Back 15

connect, anchor, support

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Epithelial

Back 16

barrier between body and external environment(i.e. skin)
exchange

Front 17

Nerve

Back 17

Initiate, transmit electrical impulses

Front 18

Body fluid compartments

Back 18

In a 70 kg man 60% water=42liters
Intracellular vs extracellular fluid

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Intracellular fluid

Back 19

28 liters(ICF)

Front 20

Extracellular fluid

Back 20

14 liters(ECF)
Plasma(3)+ interstitial fluid(ISF, 11)

Front 21

Organ systems

Back 21

Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Urinary, Gastrointestinal, Reproduction, Immune

Front 22

Immune and Lymphatic system

Back 22

WBCS, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct
defend the body against pathogens and abnormal cells
Return fluids to blood vessels
Cleanses the blood

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Cardiovascular system

Back 23

Heart, blood vessels, blood
transport molecules throughout body in the bloodstream(via blood pumped by heart)
e.g oxygen, carbon dioxide, wastes

Front 24

Urinary

Back 24

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
Filter blood to regulate acidity(acid/base balance), blood volume and ion concentrations, eliminate wastes, regulates water and electrolytes

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Gastronintestinal

Back 25

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, rectum
break down food and absorb it into the body, eliminates indigestible material

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Reproduction

Back 26

Gonads, reproductive tracts and glands
Generate offspring
Not required for homeostasis
Male(steven up, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, scrotum)
Female(mammary glands, uterine tube, uterus, vagina, ovary)

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Respiratory

Back 27

Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi
bring oxygen into the body and eliminate carbon dioxide from the body
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
Maintains blood/ plasma pH

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Homeostasis I

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Central Organizing principle of physiology
Maintain stable internal environment necessary for life
Most organs participate except reproductive system
Thermoregulation and negative feedback

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Homeostasis II

Back 29

disturbance in homeostasis results in disease if not corrected
Negative feedback control is used to maintain homeostasis

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Homeostasis III

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Homeostasis is maintained through hormonal and neural control systems
Receptors(e.g chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, baroreceptors) respond to change in environment, send a stimuli to control center(brain) through afferent pathway, brain processes the information based on a set value and then sends an output towards effectors(skin blood vessel, skeletal muscles, sweat glands) to return variable to set point

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Thermoneutral zone

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Normal body temperature is 37C
if temp. increases blood flow to skin increases
if temp. decreases blood flow to skin decreases.

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Negative feedback example

Back 32

Blood glucose level
High>stimulus received by chemoreceptors> brain> pancreas>insulin>intake by liver(turned into glycogen) cells take up more glucose
Low>chem. recep.>brain> pancreas>alpha cells> glucagon> liver breakdown glycogen to get glucose which is thereafter released in the bloodstream> blood glucose rises to set point then the stimulus is for glucagon release is diminished.

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Positive feedback

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Response increases the original stimulus as opposed to canceling it
Positive feedback loops cause a rapid change in a variable
Not a common mechanism for maintaining homeostasis
E.g milk suckling, blood clotting, heart rate after heart attack

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Heart rate after myocardial infarction

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Heart rate increases to make up for part that's lost>increase in oxygen demands>increase in heart's oxygen demands>increase in heart muscle mass

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Blood

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Only fluid tissue in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue
Living cells(formed elements) and non living matrix

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Living cells(formed elements)

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erythrocytes-red blood cells
leukocytes- white blood cells
platelets-cells fragments formed from megakaryocytes

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Erythrocytes

Back 37

transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

Front 38

Leukocytes

Back 38

defend body against pathogens

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Platelets

Back 39

important in blood clotting

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Non-living matrix

Back 40

plasma is the fluid and solutes

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Blood hematocrit

Back 41

blood centrifuged-3 layers
erythrocytes(45%), buffy coat(leukocytes and platelets) and plasma(55%)
Men-5.5 L Women=4.5 L

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Blood Plasma

Back 42

Water, Salts(osmotic balance, pH buffering),
Plasma proteins(fibrinogen, globulins, albumins),
nutrients(VLAAG), Gases(O2, CO2) Hormones,
ELectrolytes(NaCl high concent. everything else low).

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Plasma proteins

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albumin-carriers, plasma oncotic osmotic pressure
globulins-carriers, clotting factors, precusor proteins, immunoglobulins
fibrinogen-blood clotting

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Blood(Characteristics)

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pH between 7.35 to 7.45
blood temp. higher than body temp.(38C vs. 37C)
scarlet red O2 rich, dull red O2 poor

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Blood plasma

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Alkalosis:blood too basic
Acidosis: blood too acidic
respiratory system and kidneys help restore blood pH to normal
carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid which can undergo a reaction, releasing H+ and bicarbonate

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Hemocytoblast

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precursor to all formed elements
(erythrocyte, white blood leukocytes, platelets)

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Blood cell formation

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Fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation
Bone marrow takes over blood cell formation by the seventh month

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Hemoglobin(Fetal vs. Adult)

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fetal hemoglobin has alpha and gamma subunits whereas adult hemoglobin has alpha and beta subunits.
fetal hemoglobin higher O2 affinity

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Jaundice

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occurs when the liver cannot rid the body of hemoglobin breakdown products enough

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Erythrocytes

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carry oxygen, anucleate, no organelles(mitochondria)
biconcave disk:large surface area favors diffusion
bags of hemoglobin, use anaerobic glycolysis
maintain osmolarity and blood/plasma pH

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Hemoglobin

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globin+4 heme groups

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Heme

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iron-containing group
can aslo bind to CO2 and H+

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Erythrocyte production control I

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Rate controlled by hormone erythropoietin
hormone produced by kidney as a response to decreased oxygen levels in blood
Homeostasis maintianed by negative feedback from blood oxygen

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Erythrocyte production control II

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normal blood oxygen levels is 100mmHg
if goes below this number, the kidney releases erythroprotein

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Erythroprotein

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stimulates erythropoiesis(synthesis of red blood cells) by the red bone marrow

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Anemia

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Decrease in the oxygen carrying ability of the blood

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Sicke cell anemia

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abnormally shaped hemoglobin due to gene mutation on the beta subunit of hemoglobin

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Polycythemia

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excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes

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Iron anemia

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iron deficiency anemia

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Pernicious anemia

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anemia due to lack of vitamin B12
Patients treated by receiving a shot of vitamin B12

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Hemorrhagic anemia

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due to excessive bleeding

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Hemolytic anemia

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malaria or sickle cell anemia
body lyses own erythrocytes

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Aplastic anemia

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anemia due to bone marrow defect
due to cancer or radiation treatment

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Renal anemia

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Anemia due to kidney failure

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Leukocytes

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Granular vs Agranular

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Leukocytes(granular)

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neutrophils(60-70%), basophils(0.5-1%), eosinophils(2-4%)

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Neutrophils

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multilobed nucleus
act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
Secretes cytokines

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Eosinophils

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large brick red cytoplasmic granules
found in response to allergies and parasitic worms

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Basophils

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have histamine-containing granules
initiate inflammation
releases heparin- prevent blood clots

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Leukocytes(Agranular)

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Lymphocytes and monocytes

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Lymphocytes

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nucleus fills most of the cell
play important role in the immune response
B/T lymphocytes(B cells and T cells)
Natural killer(NK) cells

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Monocytes

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Largest of the white blood cells
function as macrophages(fixed vs. wandering macrophages)
important in fighting chronic infection
Engulf by phagocytosis

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Leukocytes(characteristics)

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move by amoeboid
have nucleus and organelles
move in and out of blood through diapedesis
respond to cytokines released by damaged cells

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Lymphocytes(B cells)

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associated with antibodies
effector vs. memory B cells
B cell contacts antigen then becomes plasma cell
plasma cells secretes antibodies(immunoglobulins)
mark invaders for destruction

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Lymphocytes(T cells)

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Helper T cells, Cytotoxic T cells, Memory T cells, Suppressor T cells

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Helper T cells

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Helper T cells secrete cytokines that enhance activity of B cells(maturation stimulated) and other T cells

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Cytotoxic T cells

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kill virus-infected cells, abnormal cells, and bacteria
secretory products form pores in target cell membrane, kill cells by lysis

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Memory T cells

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used for reoccuring cells

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Suppressor T cells

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secrete cytokines that suppress activity of B cells
and T cells and used to end immune response
antagonistic to helper T cells

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Lymphocytes(NK cells) Null cells

Back 80

recognize abnormal cells or infected cells
cause lysis by secreting perforins
attack virus-infected cells without identifying virus
Fast acting, early immune response
MHC=major histocompatibility, inhibited by NK cells

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Leukocytes Issues

Back 81

leukocytosis, leukopenia, leukemia

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Leukocytosis

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WBC count above 11000 leukocytes/mm3
generally indicated an infection

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Leukopenia

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abnormally low leukocyte level
commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids

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Leukemia

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Bone marrow becomes cancerous
turns out excess WBCa.

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Platelets

Back 85

thrombocytes
formed from ruptured multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes
required for the clotting process
300000/mm3

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Hematopoiesis

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Blood cell formation, occurs in bone marrow
all cells differentiate from a common stem cell: hemocytoblast

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Hemocytoblast differentiation

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differentiates into lymphoid stem cell and myeloid stem cells

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Lymphoid stem cell(lymphoblast)

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cell produces lymphocytes

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Myeloid stem cell(myeloblast)

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produces all other formed elements

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Erythropoiesis

Back 90

stimulated by erythroprotein secreted from kidneys under conditions of low oxygen levels in blood flow flowing to kidneys

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WBCs and platelets formation

Back 91

Colony stimulating factors and interleukins prompt bone marrow to generate leukocytes
Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets

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Hemostasis

Back 92

stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in blood vessel
3 phases
vascular spams>platelet plug formation
>coagulation

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Vascular spasms

Back 93

vasconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm
spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss

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Platelet plug

Back 94

collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel, platelets become sticky and cling to fibers
anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets
Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

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Coagulation(blood clotting)

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prothrombin activator causes prothrombin to become thrombin
thrombin causes fibrinogen(soluble) to become fibrin(insoluble)
von Willebrand factor, ADP, Thromboxane A2, platelets activated, collagen

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Preventing plug spread

Back 96

CD39 converts ADP to AMP
edothelial cells shield collagen from platelets
Prostacyclin(PGl2) and nitric oxide produced by healthy edothelial cells shield collagen from platelets

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Aspirin

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prevents platelet activation
inhibits COX which stimulate thromboxane A2 production
blood clots can be broken up

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Hemostasis

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Coagulation
Injured tissue release tissue factor(TF)
Pf3(phospholipids) interact with TF, blood protein clotting factors and calcium to trigger a clotting cascade.
Prothrombin activator(X) converts prothrombin to thrombin(enzyme)
Clot remains until endothelial cells reform
Extrinsic and intrisic pathways contribute to coagulation

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Extrinsic pathway

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requires tissue factor III

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Intrinsic pathway

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trigger is exposed collagen.

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Dissolving a clot

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Required another cascade intitiated by exposure of collagen
plasminogen>plasmin>dissolved clot

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Undesirable clotting

Back 102

thombus and embolus

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Thrombus

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clot anchored in unbroken blood vessel
deadly in areas like the heart

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Embolus

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thrombus breaks away and freely floats in bloodstream
clog vessels in critical areas such as brain

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Coagulation factors in clot formation disorders

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Hemophilia
Von Willebrand's disease
Vitamin K deficiency
Thrombocytopenia

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Hemophilia

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group of genetic disorders caused by deficiency of gene for specific coagulation factors

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Von Willebrand's disease

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reduced levels of vWf and decreases platelet plug formation

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Vitamin K deficiencies

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caused decreased synthesis of clotting factors

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Thrombocytopenia

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platelet deficiency
even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels that require platelets for clotting

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Blood loss(%)

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15-30% weakness
over 30%: shock which can be fatal

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Lymphatic system

Back 111

lymphatic vessels+lymphoid tissues and organs
transport escaped fluid back to the blood
play essential roles in body defense and resistance to disease
has role in digestion

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Developmental aspects lymphatic system

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lymphoid organs poorly developed except for the thymus and spleen
Newborn has no lymphocytes at birth
only passive immunity from the mother

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Lymphatics(removed)

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severe endema results
vessels may grow back in time

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Central Lymphoid Tissue

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Bone marrow+ thymus

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Bone marrow

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hematopoeitic stem cells:precursor for all blood cells
leukcoytes except T lymphocytes full develop here

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Thymus

Back 116

T lymphocytes migrate from bone marrow to thymus
develop maturity in thymus

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Peripheral lymphoid tissue

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Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, appendix, Peyer's patches
Collection of B cells, T cells and macrophages
Trap microorganisms and foreign particles(expose them to leukocytes in high concentration)

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Spleen+Lymph nodes

Back 118

filter blood and lymph

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Lymphatic organs(lymphatic function)

Back 119

Spleen, thymus, tonsils, Peyer's patches

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Spleen

Back 120

located on the left side of the abdomen
filters blood and destroys worn out blood cells
form blood cells in the fetus
Acts as a blood reservoir

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Thymus

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located low in the throat, overlying the heart
functions at peak levels only during childhood
produces hormones to program lymphocytes

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Tonsils

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Masses of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx
trap and remove bacteria and other foreign materials

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Peyer's patches

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found in the wall of the small intestine and capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine

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Lymph nodes

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filters lymph before it is returned to the blood
Have defense cells

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Defense cells

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macrophages engulf and destroy foreign substances
lymphocytes provide immune response to antigens

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Harmful materials(lymph vessels)

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bacteria, virus, cancer cells, cell debris, protists(similar to human cells; not easily destroyed), worms, fungi

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Lymph node structure

Back 127

Most are kidney shaped and less than 1 inch long
Cortex+medulla

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COrtex

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outer part
contains follicles that house collections of lymphocytes

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Medulla

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inner part
contains phagocytic macrophages

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Lymphatic characteristics

Back 130

lymph fluid carried by lymphatic vessels

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Lymphatic vessels I

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one way system toward the heart
no pump
lymph moves toward the heart by squeezing motion of skeletal muscle
and rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in vessel walls

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Lymphatic vessels II

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lymph enters the convex side through afferent lymphatic vessels
lymph flows through a number of sinuses inside the node
lymph exites through efferent lymphatic vessels
Fewer efferent than afferent vessels causes flow to be slowed

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Flow slowed

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allows for macrophages and lymphocytes to perform their function

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Lymphatic vessels III

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lymph capillaries
walls overlap to form flap-like minivalves
fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
capillaries anchored to connective tissue by filaments
Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
fluid forced along the vessel

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Lymphatic vessels IV

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collect lymph from lymph capillaries
carry lymph to and away from lymph nodes
return fluid to circulatory veins near heart
right lymphatic duct
thoracic duct (left)

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Immune system

Back 136

innate defense system(non-specific) vs. adaptive defense system(specific)
we can develop immunity or specific resistance to certain pathogens

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Innate body defenses

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First and second line of defenses

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First line of Defense

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physical barriers, chemical barriers, mucous membranes, flu-like symptoms

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Physical barriers

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skin, mucous membrane, mucous traps microorganisms in digestive and respiratory pathways

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Chemical barriers

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secretions form sebaceous(oily substance in hair follicles) and sweat glands(salty sweat), sebum toxic to bacteria
urine, vaginal secretions(acidic)
pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth, stomach(hydrochloric acid, protein digestive enzyme)
Tears, sweat, saliva(lysozymes) break down bacteria

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Flu-like symptoms

Back 141

fever, runny nose and watery eyes
diarrhea, rash, achy muscles, fatigue

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Second line of defense

Back 142

Fever, phagocytosis, Natural Kill Cells, inflammation, anitimicrobial proteins, complement system

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Fever

Back 143

Abnormally high body temperature(inhabitable for pathogens)
hypothalamus heat regulation can be reset by pyrogens
High temperature inhibit release of iron and zinc from the liver and spleen needed by bacteria
Increases speed of tissue repair
WBCs sticky

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Pyrogens

Back 144

secreted by white blood cells
substances that can cause fever

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Phagocytosis

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Neutrophils move by diapedesis(movement of blood cells though capillary walls) to clean up damaged tissue and/or pathogens
Monocytes become macrophages and complete disposal of cell debris

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Phagocytes

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cells such as neutrophils and macrophages engulf foreign material into a vacuole
enzymes from lysozomes digest the material

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NK cells

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natural killer (NK) cells
can lyse (disintegrate or dissolve) and kill cancer cells
can destroy virus/bacteria-infected cells

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Inflammation I

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prevents spread of damaging agents
disposes of cell debris and pathogens through phagocytosis
sets the stage for repair

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Inflammation II

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triggered when body tissues are injured
series of events causing accumulation of proteins, fluid, and phagocytes in area injured or invaded
result in a chain of events leading to protection and healing

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Acute inflammation

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results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing

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Inflammatory events

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injured cells release cytokines and histamines
blood vessels are dilated(influx of blood) look red

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Antimicrobial proteins

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attack/hinder reproduction of microorganisms
Complement proteins(use membrane attack complex proteins to lyse cells; may be part of the specific(adaptive) or non-specific(innate) immune response
Interferon(proteins secreted by virus-infected cells; bind to health cell surfaces to interfere with the ability of viruses to multiply)

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Complement system

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response involves 30 proteins in cascade resulting in MAC on surface of bacteria
MAC pierces bacterial membrane causing lysis
triggers histamine release from mast cell
bind to carbohydrates on bacterial cell walls, part of nonspecific defense mechanisms

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Complement system II

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binding to antibodies attached to bacteria
part of specific defense mechanisms

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Third line of defense

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specific immune responses triggered by foreign matter reaching lymphoid tissue
antibodies protect from pathogens

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Aspect of adaptive defense

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antigen specific, recognized and acts against particular substances
systemic, not restricted to the initial infection site
memory recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
can recognize self from non-self

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Third line of defense(types of immunity)

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passive immunity vs. cellular immunity

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Passive immunity

Back 158

anti-body mediated immunity is B cell mediated
provided by antibodies present in body fluids
involves secretion of antibodies by plasma cells
defend against bacteria, toxins, viruses in body fluids

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Cellular immunity

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T-cell mediated immunity
targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells and cells of foreign grafts
involves lysis of cells by cytotoxic T cells
defend against bacteria, viruses in body cells
Part of reaction to transplants and cancer cell

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Third line of defense(specific immune responses)

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antigens(non-self) are very specific
antigens(antibody generators) have
complex proteins/polysaccharides
part of foreign invader, tumor cell

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Epitopes

Back 161

recognition sites on pathogen/ antigen for B or T cells

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B and T cell specificity

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Antigen receptors recognize certain antigens only
B cells- membrane antibodies
T cells- T cell receptors

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Self-antigens

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human cells have many surface proteins
immune cells do not attack our own proteins
foreign cells can trigger an immune response because they are foreign and restricts donors for transplants.

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Immunocompetent cell

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cell that becomes capable of responding to a specific antigen by binding to it

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Adaptive system cells

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lymphocytes, macrophages

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Lymphocytes

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originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow
B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the bone marrow
T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the thymus

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Macrophages

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arise from monocytes
become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
secrete cytokines(proteins important in the immune response)

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Self-Tolerance

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B and T cells do not attack normal body cells
As cells develop in bone marrow and thymus, any that have antigen receptors against normal body cells are destroyed by apoptosis(programmed cell death)

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Self-tolerance failure

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Autoimmune diseases

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MHC molecules

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unique to individual person
Major histocompatibility complex=MHC
MHC marks body cells as self
Responsible for tissue/organ rejection
stimulates immune response to foreign tissue

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T cells: Cellular immunity II

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T cells defend against foreign or abnormal matter through direct contact

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T cell clones

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Cytotoxic(killer) T cells, Helper T cells, Regularoty(Suppressor) T cells

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Cytotoxic T cells(killer)

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specialize in killing infected cells
insert a toxic chemical(perforin/fragmentin)

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Helper T cells

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Recruit other cells to fight the invaders
interact directly with B cells

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Regulatory(suppressor) T cells

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release chemicals to suppress the activity of T cells
stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled activity

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Cytotoxic T cells(Action)

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perforins vs fragmentins

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Perforins

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form pore in membrane of infected cell
leads to lysis of infected cell

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Fragmentins

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enter infected cell through perforin-induced pored
trigger apoptosis

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B cells(humoral immunity)

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B lymphocyte exposure to antigen triggers clonal selection:
memory B cells+plasma cells

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Lifespan

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memory B cells last years
plasma cells last at most a week

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Plasma cells

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secrete 2000 anibodies specific antigen per second
antibodies circulate several weeks binding/ marking antigen for destruction
may cause phagocytosis or complement-mediated lysis

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T cells(Cellular Immunity) II

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Secondary humoral responses
Memory cells are long lived
a second exposure causes a rapid response
second response is stronger and longer lasting

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Primary/secondary response

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originally antigen binds to a receptor on B cells
B cells thereafter differentiate into plasma cells which produce antibodies and memory B cells
When subsequent attack by same antigen, more plasma cells(more antibodies) produced and more memory B cells allowing for a faster response

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Antibodies

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binds to specific antigen
aids in inactivation or destruction of antigen

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Antibody(structure)

Back 185

four amino acid chained linked by disulfide bonds
two identical amino acids chains linked to form heavy chain
2 identical amino acids chains linked to form light chain
2 antigen-binding sites are present
constant region same within a class of antibodies
variable region gives specificity to antigen-binding site

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Antibodies(GAMED 5)
Immunoglobulin classes

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neutralization and agglutination
IgM activate complement
IgA found mainly in mucus
IgD important in activation of B cell
IgG can cross placental barrier, activate complement and NK cells, opsonization
IgE involved in allergies, histamine release from mast cells and basophils

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Neutralization

Back 187

binding of antibody to antigen blocks activity of antigen
antibodies surround pathogen

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Agglutination

Back 188

Many antibodies binding to pathogen cause clumping for easy localization and identification
aggregate a group of pathogens

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Opsonization

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Binding of antibodies enhances phagocytosis
variable region of antibody binds to antigen
constant region binds to phagocytic cells, IgG

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Complement activation MAC(membrane attack complex)

Back 190

antibodies bound to pathogens activate the complement cascade leading in cell lysis

Front 191

Enhanced Natural Killer Activity

Back 191

NK cells have receptors for antibody tail
antibodies mark cells for destruction
NK cells produce pore through perforin

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Immunity

Back 192

Active vs passive

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Active immunity

Back 193

immune response to vaccine or pathogen in individual gives immunity
Occurs when B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies
Artificial:vaccine, dead or attenuated pathogens
Natural: infection, contact with pathogen

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Passive immunity

Back 194

ready-made antibodies administered
no memory cells, so no long-term immunity
Artificial: injection of immune serum (gamma globulin)
Natural: from mother to fetus via placenta or to infant in her milk

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Immunization

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Vaccine: compromised microorganism or its antigens in a form not expected to cause disease
Induces immune response and production of memory cells

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Passive immunity

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borrowed antibodies
naturally from mother to her fetus
IgG passes placenta
IgA passed in breast milk
artificial: immuno serum, gamma globulin

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Organs transplants and rejection

Back 197

4 types of graphs:
autografts, isografts, allografts, xenografts
autigrafts and isografts ideal donors
xenograft really successful
allografts more successful with a closer tissue match
Recipient's immune system must be repressed

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Autografts

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tissue from one site to another on the same person

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Isografts

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tissue grafts from an identical person(identical twin)

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Allografts

Back 200

tissue taken from another person

Front 201

Xenografts

Back 201

tissue taken from a different animal species

Front 202

Immune dysfunctions

Back 202

autoimmune diseases, allergy, immunodeficiency diseases, stress and the immune response

Front 203

Autoimmune diseases

Back 203

immune system treats a part of self like pathogen
immune system fails to distinguish self from non-self
inefficient lymphocyte programming
cross-reaction of antibodies produced against foreign antigens with self-antigens

Front 204

Autoimmune disease II

Back 204

appearance of self-proteins that may not have been exposed to immune system(e.g eggs, sperm, eye lens, proteins in thyroid gland)

Front 205

Autoimmune disease III

Back 205

Multiple sclerosis_ white matter of brain and myelin on nerves destroyed
myasthenia gravis_ impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles
Type I diabetes mellitus:destroys pancreatic beta cells that produce insulin
systemic lupus erythemaosus_ affects kidney, heart, lung, skin
Rheumatoid arthritis:destroy joints
Vitiligo_affects pigmentation of skin

Front 206

Allergies

Back 206

Abnormal, vigorous immune response
immediate vs. delayed hypersensitivity

Front 207

Immediate hypersensitivity

Back 207

triggered by release of histamine from IgE binding to mast cells
reactions begin within seconds of contact with allergen
Anaphylactic shock

Front 208

Delayed hypersensitivity

Back 208

triggered by the release of lymphokines from activated helper T cells
symptoms usually appear 1-3 days after contact with antigen

Front 209

Anaphylactic shock

Back 209

dangerous, systemic response
severe allergic reactions: massive release of histamine from mast cells throughout body throughout body cause vasodilation> decrease blood pressure
prophylactic_ epinephrine increase cardiac output and blood pressure> increased blood pressure

Front 210

Immunodeficiency

Back 210

production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal
congenital or acquired(AIDS)
weak or under-active immune system

Front 211

Stress(Immune response)

Back 211

Stress suppresses the immune system
steroid hormones(cortisol)
decrease number of leukocytes
anti-inflammatory activity
Autonomic neutral input to lymphoid tissue

Front 212

Cardiovascular system

Back 212

Start

Front 213

Cardiovascular(function)

Back 213

Deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove carbon dioxide and other wastes products

Front 214

Cardiovascular(transport of subst.)

Back 214

oxygen and nutrients to cell
wastes from cell products to liver and kidneys
hormones, immune cells, clotting proteins to specific target cells

Front 215

Cardiovascular(closed system)

Back 215

closed system composed of heart, blood and blood vessels
heart pumps blood
blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of the body
blood used for delivery

Front 216

Heart

Back 216

located in thoracic cavity
diaphragm separates abdominal cavity from thoracic cavity
about the size of a fist, weighs about 250-350 grams
valves present for unidirectional blood flow
four chambers:2 atria and 2 ventricles

Front 217

Cardiac muscle(properties)

Back 217

intercalated disks(gap junctions so heart can contract as a unit,
desmosomes: resist stress)
aerobic muscle
no cell division after infancy-grow by hypertrophy
99% contractile cells; 1% autorhytmic cells

Front 218

Pericardium

Back 218

double-walled membranous sac surrounding heart
serous fluid fills the space between the layers of pericardium
lubricates heart decreasing friction

Front 219

Pericarditis

Back 219

inflammation of pericardium

Front 220

Heart

Back 220

4 chambers right and left side act as separate pumps

Front 221

Septa

Back 221

separates chambers
interventricular and interatrial septa

Front 222

Interventricular septum

Back 222

separates the two ventricles

Front 223

Interatrial septum

Back 223

separates the two atria

Front 224

Four heart chambers

Back 224

Atria-left and right- receiving chambers
Ventricles-left and right- discharging chambers

Front 225

Heart valves

Back 225

Atrioventricular valves, Semilunar valves

Front 226

Atrioventricular valves

Back 226

valves between atria and ventricles
bicuspid/mitral valve(left side, 2 cusps) and tricuspid valve(right side, 3 cusps)
anchored in place by chordae tendineae("heart strings")
open during heart relaxation and closed during ventricular contraction

Front 227

Semilunar valves

Back 227

Valves between ventricle and artery
pulmonary valve(right ventricle/pulmonary artery)
aortic valve(left ventricle/aorta)
closed during heart relaxation open during ventricle contraction

Front 228

Valves(unidirectional blood flow)

Back 228

pressure difference drives blood flow from high to low pressure

Front 229

Normal direction of flow

Back 229

veins>atria>ventricles>arteries
valves prevent backward flow of blood
valves open passively based on pressure gradient

Front 230

Blood vessels:vasculature

Back 230

Heart>arteries>arterioles>capillaries>venules>veins>heart
Closed system
Pressure drives blood flow

Front 231

Arteries

Back 231

relatively large, branching vessels that conduct blood away from the heart

Front 232

Arterioles

Back 232

small branching vessels with high resistance

Front 233

Capillaries

Back 233

site of exchange between blood and tissue

Front 234

Venules

Back 234

small converging vessels

Front 235

Veins

Back 235

relatively large converging vessels that conduct blood to the heart

Front 236

Flow through cardiovascular system

Back 236

pulmonary vs systemic circuits

Front 237

Pulmonary circuit

Back 237

supplied by right heart
blood vessels from heart to lung and lungs to heart

Front 238

Systemic circuit

Back 238

supplied by left heart
blood vessels from heart to sytemic tissues and tissues to heart

Front 239

Flow pathway

Back 239

Left ventricle>aorta>systemic circuit>venae cavae>right atrium>tricuspid valve>right ventricle>pulmonary artery>pulmonary circuit>pulmonary veins>left atrium>left ventricle

Front 240

Oxygenation of Blood

Back 240

Exchange between blood and tissue takes place in capillaries
pulmonary capillaries vs. systemic capillaries

Front 241

Pulmonary capillaries

Back 241

blood entering lungs=deoxygenated blood
oxygen diffuses from tissue to blood
blood
blood leaving lungs=oxygenated blood

Front 242

Systemic capillaries

Back 242

blood entering tissues=oxygenated blood
oxygen diffuses from blood to tissue
blood leaving tissues=deoxygenated blood

Front 243

Coronary circulation I

Back 243

intrinsic conduction system(nodal system): heart muscle cells contract, without nerve impulses, in a regular, continuous way

Front 244

Coronary circulation II

Back 244

Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the myocardium
Heart has its own nourishing system

Front 245

Heart nourishing system

Back 245

Coronary arteries branch from the aorta to supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood
Cardiac veins drain the myocardium of blood and empty into coronary sinus(large vein on the posterior of heart)
Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary sinus

Front 246

Bypass surgery

Back 246

bypass potential clot that could form in the coronary arteries

Front 247

Cardiac muscle

Back 247

rhythmic contraction and relaxation generates heart pumping action
contraction pushes blood out of heart into vasculature
Relaxation allows heart to fill with blood

Front 248

Heart:Conduction system

Back 248

Sinoatrial node=SA node(pacemaker) in right atrium
>Atrioventricular node= AV node at the junction of the atria and ventricles
>Atrioventricular bundle=Bundle of His and Bundle branches in the interventricular septum
>Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle wall muscles

Front 249

Autorhythmic cells

Back 249

atria contract as a unit and then(precedes) ventricles contract as a unit.
provide pathway to spread excitation through heart
sinoatrial node is the pacemaker of the heart and then the message goes to the atrioventricular node
Wave of contraction through cardiac muscle

Front 250

Conduction system

Back 250

pacemaker cells and conduction fibers

Front 251

Pacemaker cells

Back 251

spontaneously depolarizing membrane potentials to generate action potentials
coordinate and provide rhythm to heartbeat

Front 252

Conduction fibers

Back 252

rapidly conduct action potentials initiated by pacemaker cells to myocardium
Conduction velocity(CV)=4 meters/second
vs. Ordinary muscle fibers, CV = 0.4 meter/second

Front 253

Spread of Excitation

Back 253

Action potential initiated in the SA node
>Action are conducted from the SA node to the atrial muscle
>Action potentials spread through atria to the AV node where conduction slows
>Action potentials travel rapidly through the conduction system to the apex of the heart
>ACtion potentials spread upward through the ventricular muscle
>Entire heart returns to resting state

Front 254

Control of Heartbeat by pacemakers

Back 254

Authorythmic cells have pacemaker potentials
Spontaneous depolarization caused by closing K+ channels and opening of funny Na+ channels and T type Ca2+ channels
Different from generic action potential since no stimulus is needed
Fast opening of L type Ca2+ channels leads to the action potential depolarization until threshold
Ca2+ L channels cause the action potential
Then potassium channels open and K+ moves out leading to repolarization

Front 255

Generic action potential

Back 255

Na+ channels open due to stimulus
Then once reach threshold Voltage gated Na+ channels open to allow
More Na+ gets inside the cell
At peak Voltage gated Na+ channels are inactivated and Voltage gated K+ channels open
(repolarization occurs as K+ leaves the cell)
But then too many K+ ions leave the cell and this results in hyperpolarization
Active pumping of Na+ out and K+ in during the refractory period

Front 256

Resting membrane potential

Back 256

Membrane maintains a + charge on its outer surface and a - charge on its inner surface using three mechanisms

Front 257

Three mechanisms

Back 257

Voltage gated Na+ (only open when threshold is reached)
Na/K pump brings in 2 positive charges and brings out 3 positive charge
K+ is constantly leaking from the cell

Front 258

Excitation-contraction coupling

Back 258

depolarization of cardiac contractile cell to threshold via gap junction

Front 259

Heart contractions(medical conditions)

Back 259

Tachycardia(HR>100 beats/min)
Bradycardia(HR<60 beats/min)
Abnormal heart rate in non-athlete could indicate a medical condition

Front 260

Cardiac cycle(periods)

Back 260

Systole
Diastole
Atria contract simultaneously, relax then ventricles contract

Front 261

Systole

Back 261

Ventricle(Heart) contraction, blood pressure rises and blood is moved out of heart along blood vessels

Front 262

Diastole

Back 262

Ventricle(Heart) relaxation, blood pressure falls and heart fills with blood.

Front 263

Heart Cardiac cycle

Back 263

Three phases
Mid-to-late diastole
Ventricular systole
Early diastole

Front 264

Mid-to-late diastole

Back 264

blood flows from atria into ventricles
ventricular filling and atrial contraction

Front 265

Ventricular systole

Back 265

blood pressure builds before ventricle contracts, pushing out blood
isovolumetric contraction phase and ventricular ejection phase

Front 266

Early diastole

Back 266

atria finish refilling, ventricular pressure is low
Isovolumetric relaxation

Front 267

ECG(Electrocardiograph)

Back 267

Measures the electrical activity of the heart
P wave atrial depolarization
QRS complex corresponds to ventricle depolarization
T wave represents ventricle repolarization

Front 268

ECG abnormalities

Back 268

Third-degree block(no T wave)
Atrial fibrillation(irregular sequence of waves)
Ventricular fibrillation(no clear define waves observable)

Front 269

Blood Vessels

Back 269

Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules, Veins

Front 270

Arteries

Back 270

walls of arteries are the thickest(1mm vs. 0.5 mm veins)
muscular, highly elastic and fibrous tissue under high pressure
less elastin compared to veins
smooth muscle regulates radius

Front 271

Veins

Back 271

walls are large and veins have valves that prevent backflow
skeletal muscle squeezes blood in veins toward the heart
large internal diameter than arteries(5mm vs. 4mm)
thin walled, highly distensible

Front 272

Capillaries

Back 272

Only one cell layer thick, thinnest wall(.0005 vs. 1.0 mm arteries)
allow for exchanges between blood and tissue
Substances exchanges due to concentration gradients
walls are 1 cell layer, small diffusion barrier
pores between endothelial cells, protein free plasma moves through pores

Front 273

Blood vessels

Back 273

Three layers
tunica intima
tunica media
tunica externa

Front 274

Tunica intima

Back 274

endothelium

Front 275

Tunica media

Back 275

smooth muscle
controlled by sympathetic nervous system

Front 276

Tunica externa

Back 276

mostly fibrous connective tissue

Front 277

Varying arteriole radius(functions)

Back 277

controlling blood flow to individual capillary beds
regulating mean arterial pressure

Front 278

Great vessels(Heart)

Back 278

Arteries
aorta-leaves left ventricle
pulmonary arteries-leaves right ventricle
Veins
superior and inferior venae cavae- enter right atrium
pulmonary veins(4)- enter left atrium

Front 279

Capillary exchange:mechanisms

Back 279

4 mechanisms
direct diffusion across plasma membrane
endocytosis or exocytosis(vesicles)
some capillaries have gaps(called intercellular clefts),plasma membrane not joined by tight junctions
fenestrations(pores) of some capillaries

Front 280

Fluid movement at capillary beds

Back 280

blood pressure forces fluid and solutes in or out of capillaries
two situations: arterial end of capillary vs. venous end of capillary

Front 281

Arterial end of capillary

Back 281

Blood pressure is higher than osmotic pressure. Hence, blood pressure draws solutes and fluid out of the capillary and into the tissue

Front 282

Venous end of capillary

Back 282

Blood pressure is lower than osmotic pressure. As a result, osmotic pressure draws solute and fluids out of tissues and into capillaries

Front 283

Precapillary sphincters

Back 283

ring of smooth muscle that surrounds capillaries on the arteriole end
contract/relax in response to local factors only
Contraction and relaxation

Front 284

Contraction

Back 284

constrict capillary> decrease blood flow

Front 285

Relaxation

Back 285

increase blood flow

Front 286

Metabolites

Back 286

wastes product that cause relaxation and thus increase in blood flow

Front 287

Capillary beds

Back 287

consist of two types of vessels
vascular shunt
True capillaries

Front 288

Vascular shunt

Back 288

vessel connects arterioles directly to venules

Front 289

True capillaries

Back 289

exchange vessels
oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
carbon dioxide and waste products cross into blood

Front 290

Factors affecting filtration and absorption

Back 290

kidney disease
heart disease
liver disease

Front 291

Kidney disease

Back 291

increase blood volume, leads to increase in blood pressure
decrease in plasma proteins

Front 292

Heart disease

Back 292

pulmonary edema

Front 293

Liver disease

Back 293

decrease in plasma proteins

Front 294

Veins

Back 294

Factors that influence central venous pressure and venous return
1)large diameter, but thin walls
2)valves

Front 295

Valves

Back 295

allow unidirectional blood flow
present in peripheral veins
absent from central veins

Front 296

Veins

Back 296

volume reservoir because of high compliance

Front 297

Compliance

Back 297

measure of how the pressure of a vessel will change with a change in volume

Front 298

Arteries(compliance)

Back 298

low compliance, small increase in blood volume causes a large increase in pressure

Front 299

Veins(compliance)

Back 299

High compliance, large increase in blood volume is required to produce large increase in pressure
expand with little change in pressure and function as blood reservoir
60% total blood volume in systemic veins at rest, veins hold large volume with small pressure change due to high compliance

Front 300

Skeletal muscle pump

Back 300

most arterial blood is pumped by the heart
Veins milking action of muscles

Front 301

Veins(milking action of muscles)

Back 301

help to move blood
one-way valves in peripheral veins
Make use of 2 events
skeletal muscle contraction
skeletal muscle relaxation

Front 302

Skeletal muscle contraction

Back 302

squeezes on vein, increasing pressure
blood moves toward heart
blood cannot move backwards due to valves

Front 303

Skeletal muscle relaxes

Back 303

Blood flows into veins between muscles

Front 304

Danger(non-circulation)

Back 304

if blood doesn't circulate, there is a decrease in blood pressure which might cause the individual to pass out

Front 305

Pulse

Back 305

pressure wave of blood, relates to heartbeat
monitored at pressure points in arteries where pulse is easily palpitated
on average 70-76 beats/min at rest

Front 306

Arterial Blood pressure

Back 306

pressure in the aorta
varies with cardiac cycle, measure with sphygmomanometer
systolic blood pressure vs. diastolic blood pressure

Front 307

Systolic blood pressure

Back 307

maximum pressure, due to ejection of blood into aorta(ventricle contraction)

Front 308

Diastolic blood pressure

Back 308

minimum pressure(ventricle relaxation)

Front 309

Pressure gradient across systemic circuit(different from pulmonary circuit)

Back 309

pressure gradient=MAP(mean arterial pressure; pressure in the aorta) - CVP(central venous pressure; pressure in vena cava just before it empties into right atrium) = 90 - 0 = 90mmHg

Front 310

Lower pressure gradient(pulmonary circuit)

Back 310

if pressure in pulmonary circuit was higher this would result in edema(20 mmHg)

Front 311

Blood pressure measurements

Back 311

Made on the pressure in large arteries
Systolic pressure is pressure at the peak of ventricle contraction
Diastolic pressure is pressure when ventricles relax
write systolic/diastolic
Pressure in blood vessels decreases as distance from the heart increases

Front 312

Measuring arterial pressure

Back 312

Increase pressure on the course of brachial artery until no sound is heard
then slowly decrease pressure
the pressure at which sound is first heard is the systolic pressure,
the pressure at which no more sound is heard is diastolic pressure

Front 313

Factors affecting blood pressure

Back 313

age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position, emotional state
WET ABE

Front 314

Cardiac output

Back 314

abbrev. CO
amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute

Front 315

Peripheral resistance

Back 315

abbrev. PR
amount of friction blood encounters as it flows through vessels; narrowing of blood vessels and increased blood volume increases PR

Front 316

BP(blood pressure)

Back 316

CO*PR

Front 317

Blood pressure(effects of factors)

Back 317

Neural factors
Renal factors
Temperature
Chemicals
Diet

Front 318

Neural factors

Back 318

autonomic nervous system adjustements(sympathetic division)

Front 319

Renal factors

Back 319

regulation by altering blood volume
renin released from kidney to increase BP

Front 320

Temperature

Back 320

Heat has a vasodilating effect
cold has a vasoconstricting effect

Front 321

Chemicals

Back 321

various substances can cause an increase(naproxen, ibuprofen) or decreases(diuretics), alcohol

Front 322

Diet

Back 322

salt, water intake can alter BP

Front 323

Factors leading to increase in blood pressure

Back 323

decreased blood volume
exercise
postural changes
chemicals(renin, nicotine and others)
increased blood viscosity

Front 324

Decreased blood volume

Back 324

two events occur
water and salt retention by kidney
activation of the sympathetic nervous system center
>increased stroke volume> increased C.O.> increased arterial blood pressure

Front 325

Exercise

Back 325

leads to activation of sysmpathetic nervous system center
>increased heart rate>increased C.O.
>increased arterial pressure

Front 326

Postural changes

Back 326

leads to activation of sysmpathetic nervous system center
>vasoconstriction occurs> increased P.R.> increased arterial blood pressure

Front 327

Increased blood viscosity

Back 327

increased peripheral resistance
>increased arterial blood pressure

Front 328

Variations in blood pressure

Back 328

Normal range
Hypotension vs. Hypertension

Front 329

Normal range

Back 329

140-110 mmHg systolic
80-75 mmHg diastolic

Front 330

Hypotension

Back 330

low systolic(below 110 mmHg)
inadequate blood flow to tissues
often associated with illness
fainting

Front 331

Hypertension

Back 331

high systolic(above 140 mmHg)
stress on heart and walls of blood vessels
can be dangerous if it is chronic

Front 332

Physical laws governing blood flow

Back 332

Pressure gradients in the cardiovascular system
resistance in the cardiovascular system
relating pressure gradients and resistance in the systemic circulation

Front 333

Flow(function)

Back 333

Flow = average pressure / resistance = delta P/ R
circulatory system=closed system
pressure = force exerted by blood
flow occurs from high pressure to low pressure

Front 334

Factors affecting resistance

Back 334

radius of vessel
length of vessel
viscosity of fluid

Front 335

Radius of vessel

Back 335

in arterioles(small arteries) radius can be regulated through vasoconstriction or vasodilation

Front 336

Length of vessel

Back 336

can't change

Front 337

Viscosity of fluid

Back 337

n, blood viscosity dependent on amount of RBCs and proteins

Front 338

Regulation of blood flow

Back 338

regulation of arterioles and small arteries
vasoconstriction decrease radius>increase resistance
vasodilation increase radius>decrease resistance
pulmonary circuit less resistance than systemic, lower pressure gradient required for blood flow

Front 339

Factors affecting local blood glow

Back 339

Heat-increases blood flow
Cold-decreases blood flow

Front 340

Distribution of adregernic receptors in arterioles to skeletal and cardiac muscle

Back 340

alpha and Beta 2 adrenergic receptors.
norepinephrine and epinephrine

Front 341

Norepinephrine and epinephrine

Back 341

norepinephrine/epinephrine
bind to alpha receptors: vasoconstriction
bind to Beta 2 receptors: vasodilation
epinephrine has greater affinity for Beta 2 receptors

Front 342

Regulation of blood flow during exercise

Back 342

cardiac output increases during exercise
distribution of blood does not increase proportionally
dilation of blood vessels to skeletal muscle and heart:increases blood flow to these regions
constriction to GI tract and kidneys:decreased blood flow to these regions

Front 343

Blood volume vs. blood pressure

Back 343

increase in blood volume> increase pressure
decrease blood volume>decrease pressure
long-term regulation of blood pressure is through regulation of blood volume(ADH, aldosterone)

Front 344

Neural controle of MAP

Back 344

negative feedback loop to maintain blood pressure at normal level
Baroreceptors
integration center
Controllers
effectors

Front 345

Baroreceptors

Back 345

stretch receptors
location: carotid sinus, aortic arch

Front 346

Integration center

Back 346

cardiovascular centers in the brainstem

Front 347

Controllers

Back 347

autonomic nervous system
parasympathetic(rest and digest) and sympathetic(fight or flight) system centers

Front 348

Effectors

Back 348

heart and blood vessels

Front 349

Baroreceptor reflex(response to decrease in MAP)

Back 349

Arterial receptors>decrease frequency of action potentials to CNS>goes to cardiovascular control center

Front 350

Cardiovascular center

Back 350

decrease parasympathetic activity and increase sympathetic activity

Front 351

Decrease parasympathetic activity

Back 351

affects SA node

Front 352

Increased sympathetic activity

Back 352

affects SA node,
ventricular myocardium
veins
Arterioles

Front 353

SA node

Back 353

>increase in action potential frequency
>increase in Heart Rate
>increase in mean arterial pressure(MAP)

Front 354

Ventricular myocardium

Back 354

>increase in contractillity
>increase in stroke volume
>increase in mean arterial pressure(MAP)

Front 355

Veins

Back 355

>increase in venomotor tone
>decrease in compliance
>increase in venous pressure
>increase in EDV
>increase in stroke volume
>increase in mean arterial pressure

Front 356

Arterioles

Back 356

increase in vasoconstriction
increase in TPR(peripheral resistance)
increase in mean arterial pressure

Front 357

Long-term regulation of blood pressure

Back 357

baroreceptor reflex quickly compensates for changes in BP but doesn't correct problem
long-term regulation occurs through renal regulation of blood volume

Front 358

Renal regulation of blood volume

Back 358

Kidney releases renin>aldosterone released
reabsorption of salt and indirectly water
>increase in blood volume
>increase in blood pressure

Front 359

Cardiac output(Heart)

Back 359

Stroke volume * Heart rate
amount of blood pumped by each side(ventricle) of the heart in one minute

Front 360

Stroke volume

Back 360

volume of blood(about 70 ml) pumped by each ventricle in one contraction(each heartbeat)
relatively constant
Volume(ml)/beat

Front 361

Heart rate

Back 361

typically 75 beats/min

Front 362

Startling's law of the heart

Back 362

the more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction

changing heart rate is the most common way to change cardiac output

Front 363

Cardiac output control

Back 363

autonomic and endocrine input to the heart
factors affecting cardiac output:changes in heart rate/stroke volume
integration of multiple factors affect cardiac output

Front 364

Cardiac output regulation

Back 364

inhibitors vs. stimulators

Front 365

Inhibitors

Back 365

High blood pressure or blood volume>decrease sympathetic activity>increased contractile force of cardiac muscle> increase in cardiac output
Decreased blood volume(hemorrhage)>decrese in venous return>decrease in stroke volume
>increase cardiac output(ml/min)

Front 366

Stimulators

Back 366

Crisis stressors(physical or emotional trauma; increased body temperature; exercise)>increase in sympathetic activity> increase in HR> increase in CO
Low blood pressure

Front 367

Stroke volume

Back 367

amount of blood ejected from ventricle each beat
equals end diastolic volume - end systolic volume
= 130 -60 = 70 ml

Front 368

Ejection fraction

Back 368

equals stroke volume / end diastolic volume
70/130 = 0.54

Front 369

Heart rate determined by SA node firing rate

Back 369

SA node intrinsic firing rate=100/min, if no extrinsic control on heart HR=100
SA node under control of autonomous nervous system and hormones

Front 370

Rest

Back 370

parasympathetic system dominate HR=75

Front 371

Excitement

Back 371

Sympathetic system takes over, increase in heart rate

Front 372

Sympathetic activity on heart rate

Back 372

increased sympathetic activity(verves or epinephrine)
>stimulate beta 1 receptors in SA node
>increase open state of If and calcium channels
>increase rate of spontaneous depolarization(increases APs)
>increase in heart rate

Front 373

Parasympathetic activity on heart rate

Back 373

Increased parasympathetic activity(vagus nerve)
>muscarinic cholinergic receptors in SA node
>increase open state of K+ channels and closed state of calcium channels
>decrease rate of spontaneous depolarization and hyperpolarize cell(decrease APs)
>decrease in heart rate

Front 374

Regulation of HR

Back 374

Increase HR vs. Decrease in HR

Front 375

Increase in HR

Back 375

sympathetic nervous system(crisis, low blood pressure)
hormones(epinephrine, thyroxine)
Exercise
Decreased blood volume

Front 376

Decrease in HR

Back 376

parasympathetic nervous system
high blood pressure or blood volume
decreased venous return

Front 377

Effects of sympathetic activity(beta blockers)

Back 377

beta blockers
slow down HR, give heart more time to fill
Heart stretches more and contracts harder
side-effect of beta-blockers> adrenergic receptors found all over the body so b-blockers affect entire body.

Front 378

AV nodal innervation

Back 378

Sympathetic increases conducion velocity through node
parasympathetic decreases conduction velocity through node

Front 379

Hormonal control of heart rate

Back 379

epinephrine/norepinephrine have same effect as sympathetic nervous system
glucagon-increases heart rate

Front 380

Glucagon

Back 380

released when hungry
cause increase in HR, causes release of glucose
released during fight or flight response because cells need energy

Front 381

Intrinsic control

Back 381

increase venous return> causes increase strength of contraction(inotropy)
> causes increase in stroke volume
vs Extrinsic control

Front 382

Extrinsic control

Back 382

outside of heart
nervous and endocrine system

Front 383

Cardiovascular regulatory processes

Back 383

chemoreceptor reflexes
Thermoregulatory responses

Front 384

Chemoreceptor reflexes

Back 384

carbon dioxide, pH and oxygen levels
change in pH important because hydrogen ions bind and denature proteins

Front 385

Thermoregulatory responses

Back 385

body temperature regulation
mediated through hypothalamus
> stimulus: increase in body temperature
decrease in sympathetic activity to skin
vasodilation to skin(gets rid of heat)
increase heat loss to environment
take precedence over baroreceptor reflex

Front 386

Developmental aspects of cardiovascular system

Back 386

aging problems associated with the cardiovascular system
varicose veins(venous valves weaken)
progressive atherosclerosis

Front 387

Progressive atherosclerosis

Back 387

loss of elasticity of vessels leads to hypertension
coronary artery disease results from vessels filled with fatty, calcified deposits

Front 388

Heart disease

Back 388

caused by reduced blood flow or blockage of coronary arteries
Cause:transfats which lead to clogging

Front 389

Respiratory system(function)

Back 389

gas exchanges between the blood and external environment
passageways to the lungs purify, humidify and warm the incoming air
maintain blood plasma pH

Front 390

Respiratory system(structures)

Back 390

Nose>pharynx>larynx>trachea
>bronchi>lungs>alveolar ducts>alveolar sacs>alveoli

Front 391

Respiratory system(anatomy)

Back 391

upper airways
respiratory tract

Front 392

Upper airways

Back 392

Air passages of the head and neck

Front 393

Respiratory tract

Back 393

from larynx throughout the lung
conducting zone
respiratory zone

Front 394

Conducting zone

Back 394

conducts air from larynx through lungs
air passageway, 150 ml volume=dead space
increase air temperature to body temperature
humidify air, removes some particles
Contains goblet cells>secrete mucus
ciliated cells> cilia move particles toward mouth to be expelled

Front 395

Respiratory zone

Back 395

site of gas exchange
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

Front 396

Nasal cavity(anatomy)

Back 396

olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior
Rest of cavity lined with respiratory mucosa
lateral walls have projections called conchae
nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by the palate

Front 397

Respiratory mucosa

Back 397

moisten air
trap incoming foreign particles

Front 398

Conchae

Back 398

increase surface area
increase air turbulence within the nasal cavity

Front 399

Palate

Back 399

Anterior hard palate(bone)
posterior soft palate(muscle)

Front 400

Paranasal sinuses

Back 400

cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity

Front 401

Paranasal sinuses(function)

Back 401

lighten the skull
act as resonance chambers for speech
produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity

Front 402

Sinuses(location)

Back 402

located in frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary bones

Front 403

Pharynx

Back 403

muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
three regions- nasopharynx(superior region behind nasal cavity),
oropharynx(middle region behind mouth),
laryngopharynx(inferior region attached to larynx)
oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common passageways for air and food

Front 404

Larynx

Back 404

routes air and food into proper channels
plays role in
made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage(epiglottis)

Front 405

Larynx(structures)

Back 405

thyroid cartilage
epiglottis
vocal folds
glottis

Front 406

Thyroid cartilage

Back 406

largest of the hyaline cartilages
protrudes anteriorly(Adam's apple)

Front 407

Epiglottis

Back 407

protects the superior opening of the larynx
routes food to the esophagus and air toward the trachea
when swallowing, epiglottis forms lid over the opening of the larynx

Front 408

Vocal folds(true vocal cords)

Back 408

vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)

Front 409

Glottis

Back 409

opening between vocal cords

Front 410

Trachea

Back 410

four-inch long tube that connects larynx with bronchi
walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
lined with ciliated mucosa

Front 411

Ciliated mucosa

Back 411

Beat continously in the opposite direction of incoming air
expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs

Front 412

Thoracic cavity(structures)

Back 412

Chest wall
Pleura

Front 413

Chest wall

Back 413

air tight, protects lungs
rib cage, sternum, thoracic verterbrae, muscles-internal/external intercostals, diaphragm

Front 414

Pleura

Back 414

membrane lining of lungs and chest wall
pleural sac around each lung
interpleural space filled with intrapelural fluid=15 ml

Front 415

Lungs

Back 415

occupy most of the thoracic cavity
heart occupies central portion called mediastinum
apex is near the clavicle(superior portion)
base rests on the diaphragm(inferior portion)
Each lung divided into lobes by fissures(left 2, right 3)

Front 416

Coverings of the lungs

Back 416

Serosa
Pleural fluid
the two pleural layers resist being pulled apart

Front 417

Serosa

Back 417

covers the outer surface of the lungs
pulmonary(viscelar) pleura covers the long surface
parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity

Front 418

Bronchial(three divisions)

Back 418

all but the smallest of these passageways have reinforcing cartilage in their walls
Primary bronchi>secondary bronchi>tertiary bronchi> bronchioles>terminal bronchioles(no cartilage)

Front 419

Respiratory zone(structures)

Back 419

respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts>alveolar sacs> alveoli(air sac)
primary site of gas exchange is only at the alveoli

Front 420

Alveoli

Back 420

site of gas exchange
rich blood supply(capillaries form sheet over alveoli)
Type I vs. Type II alveolar cells
alveolar macrophages present to defend against inhaled pathogens

Front 421

Type I alveolar cells

Back 421

make up wall of alveoli
single layer epithelial cells
thin

Front 422

Type II alveolar cells

Back 422

secrete surfactant
thick

Front 423

Respiratory membrane(air-blood barrier)

Back 423

thin squamous epithelial layer lines alveolar walls
alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs
pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli
Barrier for diffusion

Front 424

Barrier for diffusion

Back 424

Type I cells and basement membrane
capillary endothelial cells and basement membrane
0.2 microns(thin)

Front 425

Surfactant

Back 425

reduces the surface tension of a liquid, breaks hydrogen bonds, allowing breathing
Premature babies don't produce surfactant cells and lungs are underdeveloped. They need to be put under a respirator.
Secreted by type II alveoli

Front 426

Factors affecting pulmonary ventrilation

Back 426

lung compliance(elasticity of lung)
too elastic vs. not elastic enough
Surface tension

Front 427

Too elastic

Back 427

Scar tissue causes lung to be too elastic=decreased compliance
>hard to stretch lung>tuberculosis(hard to inspire, easy to expire)

Front 428

Not elastic enough

Back 428

Tissue breaking down>lung tissue not elastic enough> increased compliance and less recoil
>easy to inspire, hard to expire>emphysema

Front 429

Surface tension of lungs

Back 429

greater tension>less compliant

Front 430

Factors affecting respiratory capacity

Back 430

peson's size, sex, age, physical condition
In humans same tubes used for inhalation and exhalation(can't bring 100% new air into lungs)

Front 431

Respiratory volumes and capacities

Back 431

Tidal volume(TV), Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV), Expiratory reserve volume(ERV), Residual volume

Front 432

Tidal volume

Back 432

amount of air moved by normal breathing(500 ml)
known as respiratory volume

Front 433

Inspiratory volume(IRV)

Back 433

amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml

Front 434

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Back 434

amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
about 1200 ml

Front 435

Residual volume

Back 435

air remaining in lung after expiration
about 1200 ml
vs. dead space(air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches alveoli) about 150 ml

Front 436

Vital capacity

Back 436

Tidal volume+inspiratory volume+expiratory volume

Front 437

Functional volume

Back 437

air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
usually about 350 ml

Front 438

Respiratory capacities

Back 438

measured with a spirometer

Front 439

Anatomical dead space

Back 439

air in conducting zone, doesn't participate in gas exchange
conducting zone=anatomical dead space
Dead space about 150 ml

Front 440

Breathing(mechanics)/Pulmonary ventilation

Back 440

completely mechanical process that depends on volume changes in thoracic cavity
volume change>leads to pressure changes>leads to flow of gases to equalize pressure
two phases

Front 441

Two phases

Back 441

inspiration=inhalation=flow of air into lungs
Expiration=exhalation=air leaving lungs

Front 442

Inspiration

Back 442

Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract, ribs elevate
size of the thoracic cavity increases
external air pulled into lungs due to increase in intrapulmonary volume which causes a decrease in gas pressure

Front 443

Expiration

Back 443

passive process depends on natural lung elasticity, recoil
As muscles relax, air pushed out of lungs due to decrease in intrapulmonary volume and increase in gas pressure
occur mostly by contracting internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage
Contraction of expiratory muscles creates greater and faster decrease in volume of thoracic cavity

Front 444

Role of pressure in pulmonary ventilation

Back 444

air moves in and out of lungs by bulk flow
pressure gradient drives flow

Front 445

Pressure gradient action

Back 445

air moves from high to low pressure
inspiration: pressure in lungs less than atmosphere
expiration:pressure in lungs is greater than atmosphere

Front 446

Atmospheric pressure

Back 446

760 mmHg 0 for the purposes of this physiology class
decreases as altitude increases
increases under water

Front 447

Partial pressure of gases: ideal gas law

Back 447

PV=nRT
pressure depends on volume, temperature and number of gas molecules

Front 448

Important pulmonary pressures

Back 448

Patm>atmospheric pressure
Palv>pressure of air in alveoli(intra-alveolar)
Pip>pressure inside pleural sac(intrapleural)
transpulmonary pressure=Palv - Pip
distending pressure across the lung wall

Front 449

Intra-alveolar pressure

Back 449

pressure of air in alveoli
given relative to atmospheric pressure
varies with phase of respiration(negative during inhalation, positive during inhalation)
difference between Palv and Patm drives ventrilation
differences in lung and pleural space pressures keep lungs from collapsing

Front 450

Intrapleural pressure

Back 450

pressure inside pleural sac
always negative under normal conditions(-4 mmHg) always less than Palv
varies with phase of respiration

Front 451

Pneumothorax-air in the pleural cavity

Back 451

cut in interpleural sac cause lung to collapse as Pip=Palv=0

Front 452

Determinants of intra-alveolar pressure

Back 452

factors determining intra-alveolar pressure
quantity of air in alveoli(number of air molecules)
volume of alveoli(due to side of chest cavity)
Lungs expanding vs. lungs recoiling

Front 453

Lungs expanding

Back 453

alveolar volume increases
Palv decrease
pressure gradient drives air into lungs

Front 454

Lung recoiling

Back 454

alveolar volume decreases
Palv increases
pressure gradient drives air out of lungs

Front 455

Forces for air flow

Back 455

force for flow:pressure gradient
equals (Patm - Palv) / R
bronchoconstriction vs. bronchodilation

Front 456

Bronchoconstriction

Back 456

parasympathetic activity
limiting the amount of O2 (decrease in alveolar diameter)
doesn't want to let more pathogens in

Front 457

Bronchodilation

Back 457

during sympathetic activity
high demand for O2

Front 458

Forces of air flow

Back 458

Boyle's law: P =1 /V
changing alveolar volume changes alveolar pressure
resistance to air flow(R) related to radius of airways and mucus

Front 459

partial pressure of a gas

Back 459

proportion of pressure of entire gas that is due to presence of the individual gas
depends on fractional concentration of the gas
CO2 40 mmHg is alveolar air
change in partial pressure between inspired air gases and alveolar air gases

Front 460

Air(gas composition)

Back 460

79% nitrogen 21% oxygen
partial pressure gas= percent composition gas * total pressure
partial pressure of gas affects amount of gas that goes into solution

Front 461

External respiration, gas transport, internal transport

Back 461

External respiration take in oxygen, expel CO2
opposite occurs in internal respiration
INternal respiration=cellular respiration = generates ATP(oxygen is final electron acceptor in cellular respiration)

Front 462

Diffusion of gases

Back 462

gases diffuse down pressure gradients from high to low pressure
in gas mixtures, gases diffuse down partial pressure gradients from high to low partial pressure
Particular gas diffuses down its own concentration gradient, presence of other gases irrelevant

Front 463

Oxygen transport in lungs

Back 463

oxygen not very soluble in plasma
only 3ml/200ml arterial blood oxygen dissolved n plasma
other 197ml transported by hemoglobin
oxygen attached to hemoglobin(oxyhemoglobin, HBO2)

Front 464

Oxygen binding to hemoglobin

Back 464

oxyhemoglobin(HB-O2)
deoxyhemoglobin(Hb)
4 binding sites for hemoglobin
when one site binds to CO2 all others bind to CO2
leads to a decrease in O2 concentration, increase in CO2 concentration

Front 465

Carbon dioxide transport in blood

Back 465

most carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ion
small amount carried inside red blood cells at different sites than those of oxygen

Front 466

Oxygen/carbon dioxide transport

Back 466

Bicarbonate builds up in the erythrocyte because as CO2 enters from the systemic tissues it interacts with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid quickly dissociates and frees a H+ ion that binds to hemoglobin. This leaves behind the free bicarbonate. As the reaction moves forward because more CO2 enters the cell, bicarbonate (HCO3-)begins to build up. This excess bicarbonate will leave the erythrocyte and be transported in the blood plasma. As bicarbonate leaves the erythrocyte, there is a need to balance the negative charge leaving the cell, so as bicarbonate leaves, Cl- enters

Front 467

Chloride shift/reverse chloride shift

Back 467

chloride shift in systemic circuit
reverse chloride shift in pulmonary circuit

Front 468

Rate of gas diffusion in lungs

Back 468

diffusion between alveoli and blood rapid
because of the small diffusion barrier(thin) and large surface area

Front 469

Ventilation (3 types)

Back 469

hyperpnea
Hypoventilation
Hyperventilation

Front 470

Hyperpnea

Back 470

increased ventilation due to increased demand
minimal changes in arterial PO2 and CO2

Front 471

Hypoventillation

Back 471

Ventilation does not meet demands
PO2 decreases, PCO2 increases

Front 472

Hyperventilation

Back 472

ventilation exceeds demands
PO2 increases, PCO2 decreases

Front 473

Ventilation and perfusion(local regulation)

Back 473

ventilation=rate of air flow
perfusion= rate of blood flow
local ventilation and perfusion are regulated to match

Front 474

Airway resistance

Back 474

bronchoconstriction vs. bronchodilation

Front 475

bronchoconstriction

Back 475

decrease in air flow(harder to breathe) vs. increase in air flow
smooth muscle contracts causing radius to decrease

Front 476

bronchodilation

Back 476

smooth muscle relaxes causing radius to increase

Front 477

Bronchiolar smooth muscle

Back 477

contractile state under extrinsic and intrinsic controls

Front 478

Extrinsic control of bronchiole radius

Back 478

Autonomic nervous system
Hormonal control

Front 479

Autonomic nervous system

Back 479

sympathetic: relaxation of smooth muscle, bronchodilation
parasympathetic: contraction of smooth muscle, bronchoconstriction

Front 480

Hormonal control

Back 480

epinephrine causes relaxation of smooth muscle, bronchodilation

Front 481

Intrinsic control of bronchiole radius

Back 481

Histamine leads to bronchoconstriction
carbon dioxide leads to bronchodillation

Front 482

Histamine

Back 482

released during asthma attacks and allergies
also increases mucus secretion

Front 483

Pathological states that increase airway resistance

Back 483

asthma
Chronic obstructive pulmonary

Front 484

Asthma

Back 484

caused by spastic contractions of bronchiolar smooth muscle

Front 485

Chronic obstructive pulmonary

Back 485

often associated with smoking>inflammation
emphysema is permanent enlargement of airspaces
bronchitis: cough with mucus

Front 486

Emphysema

Back 486

alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break through
chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis
patients use a large amount of energy to exhale
Overinflation of the lungs leads to a permanently expanded barrel chest
due to lack in recoil properties of lung
cyanosis appears late in the disease
pink puffers

Front 487

Chronic bronchitis

Back 487

mucosa of lower repiratory passages becomes severely inflamed
mucus production increases
pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas exchange, called blue bloaters
risk of lung infection increases as mucus is sitting in lungs:pneumonia common

Front 488

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Back 488

exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema
major causes of death and disability in the United States
dyspnea(labored breathing) becomes progressively severe
conditions are irreversible
surface area of alveoli is reduced and barrier size increases
those infected ultimately develop respiratory failure

Front 489

Lung Cancer

Back 489

1/3 of all cancer deaths
three common types
squamous cell carcinoma
adenocarcinoma
small cell carcinoma

Front 490

Smoking

Back 490

contains carcinogens which cause uncontrolled cell growth(cause mutations)

Front 491

Respiratory system(developmental aspects)

Back 491

lungs filled with fluid in the fetus and not fully inflated with air until two weeks after birth
Surfactant
Aging effects

Front 492

surfactant

Back 492

(decrease surface tension) not present until around 28-30 weeks of pregnancy
decrease surface tension and helps human with compliance

Front 493

Aging effects

Back 493

elasticity and virtual capacity of lungs decrease
blood O2 levels decrease
stimulating effects of carbon dioxide decrease
elderly often hypoxyc and exhibit sleep apnea
more risks of respiratory tract infection

Front 494

Fetal hemoglobin

Back 494

higher affinity for O2 then adult hemoglobin
alpha and gamma subunits vs. alpha and beta subunits for adults

Front 495

Blood plasma pH

Back 495

normal blood pH(7.38-7.42)
respiratory and renal systems regulate blood pH
Small changes in pH have large physiological effects
alter protein activity
alter protein function

Front 496

Acidosis

Back 496

blood pH below 7.4
causes CNS depression
respiratory acidosis caused by increased CO2 concentration

Front 497

Alkalosis

Back 497

blow pH over 7.4
causes CNS overexcitation
respiratory alkalosis caused by decreased CO2

Front 498

Respiratory system in acid-base balance

Back 498

hemoglobin functions/bicarbonate ions as a buffer
regulate pH by regulating CO2 levels
HCO3-/CO2 must be 20/1
regulatory system regulates CO2
Kidneys regulate HCO3-

Front 499

Affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen

Back 499

rightward vs. leftward shifts

Front 500

Rightward shift

Back 500

Higher PO2 necessary to saturate Hb(harder to load)
easier unloading of O2
lower affinity

Front 501

Leftward shift

Back 501

Easier loading
Harder unloading
factors produced in active tissue that cause rightward shift-O2 unloading in tissue is enhanced
greater affinity

Front 502

Effect of pH on hemoglobin oxygen-affinity(Bohr effect)

Back 502

High pH causes a greater affinity
low pH causes a lower affinity
Hb + O2 <> Hb-O2 + H+
(increase in H+ causes an increase in oxygen unloading in tissue)
when oxygen binds to hemoglobin H+ ions are released

Front 503

Carbamino effect

Back 503

effect of CO2 on affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen
high CO2> decrease in affinity
low CO2> increase in affinity

Front 504

Haldane effect

Back 504

effect of O2 on CO2 transport by hemoglobin
increase in oxygen decreases affinity of hemoglobin for carbon dioxide

Front 505

Temperature effect

Back 505

increasing temperature decreases affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen(right ward shift). Hard to load, easy to unload oxygen
decrease in temperature causes a leftward shift, increase in hemoglobin oxygen affinity

Front 506

Effect of 2,3 DPG

Back 506

decreases hemoglobin affinity for oxygen enhances unloading

Front 507

Effect of carbon monoxide

Back 507

hemoglobin has greater affinity for carbon monoxide
carbon monoxide decreases hemoglobin affinity for oxygen
low solubility in plasma

Front 508

Neural regulation of respiration

Back 508

activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to and from the brain by phrenic and intercostal nerves
Neural centers that control rate and depth are located in medulla and pons

Front 509

Medulla

Back 509

sets basic rhythm of breathing and contains a pacemaker called the self-exciting inspiratory center

Front 510

Normal respiratory rate

Back 510

12-15 respirations per minute

Front 511

Hyperpnea

Back 511

increased respiratory rate often due to extra oxygen needs.

Front 512

Neural control of breathing

Back 512

respiratory muscles
inspiration
expiration
central pattern generator

Front 513

Respiratory muscles

Back 513

skeletal muscle, controlled by motor neurons

Front 514

Inspiration

Back 514

phrenic nerve> diaphragm
external intercostal nerve>external int. muscles

Front 515

Expiration

Back 515

internal intercostal nerve
internal int. muscles

Front 516

Central pattern generator

Back 516

established respiratory cycle

Front 517

Chemoreceptors

Back 517

control ventilation
detect blood levels of O2 and CO2
two types: peripheral and central

Front 518

Peripheral chemoreceptors

Back 518

in carotid bodies and aortic arch(these also monitor H+)

Front 519

Central chemoreceptors

Back 519

in medulla oblongata: mostly respond to pH of CSF(cerebral spinal fluid)

Front 520

Chemoreceptor reflex

Back 520

when arterial PO2 below 60 mmHg or arterial PCO2 slightly changes

Front 521

Arterial PO2 below 60 mmHg

Back 521

stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors
> increase in ventilation

Front 522

Arterial PCO2 rises

Back 522

3 scenarios
stimulates Arterial H+ concentration>decrease in pH>stimulate peripheral chemorectors> increase in ventilation
stimulates CSF PCO2 rise>CSF [H+] rise>stimulate central chemoreceptors >increase ventilation
stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors> increase in ventilation

Front 523

Effect of Arterial O2 on ventilation

Back 523

not much of a change until PO2 < 60 mmHg
response due to activation of peripheral chemoreceptors only, carbon dioxide levels usually cause the major response

Front 524

Effect of Arterial CO2 on ventillation

Back 524

large effect of PCO2 on ventilation
effects mediated through both central and peripheral chemoreceptors
CO2 must be converted to H+ first for detection by central chemoreceptors; small direct effect of CO2 on peripheral chemoreceptors

Front 525

Hyperventilation and hypoventilation to repsond to changes in CO2 levels

Back 525

increased breath rate
Decreaed breath rate

Front 526

Increased breath rate

Back 526

response to
hypoventilation which causes increased CO2 in the blood
acidosis
breathing is deeper and more rapid
blows off more CO2 to restore normal blood pH

Front 527

Decreased breath rate

Back 527

response to
hyperventilation which causes decreased CO2 in the blood
blood becomes more alkaline(alkalosis)
extremely slow or shallow breathing
allows CO2 to accumulate in the blood

Front 528

Urinary system(functions) START EXAM 3

Back 528

Regulate aspects of homeostasis
elimination of waster products

Front 529

Regulate aspect of homeostasis I

Back 529

water balance with Antidiuretic hormone(ADH)
acid-base balance in the blood by regulating plasma pH
regulate plasma ionic composition, electrolytes with aldosterone
regulate blood pressure and blood volume by regulating plasma volume/osmolarity

Front 530

Regulate aspect of homeostasis II

Back 530

Red blood cell production: secrete erythropoietins(stimulates RBC production when low oxygen levels are detected) and renin(aka angiotensinogenase released in low blood pressure)
activates vitamin D3(calcitriol)

Front 531

Elimination of waste products

Back 531

nitrogenous wastes
toxins
drugs

Front 532

Urinary system(developmental aspects) I

Back 532

functional kidneys developed by third month

Front 533

Urinary system(newborn)

Back 533

bladder is small
urine cannot be concentrated for first 2 months
babies pee 5 to 40 times a day>kidneys not developed yet

Front 534

Urinary system(developmental aspects) II

Back 534

control of voluntary urethral sphincter starts at 18 months
complete nighttime may not occur until child is 4 years old
urinary infections

Front 535

Urinary tract infections

Back 535

most common problem before old age
due to E.coli
E. coli accounts for 80% of urinary tract infections

Front 536

Urinary system(structures)

Back 536

kidneys form urine
ureters transport urine from kidney to bladder
bladder stores urine
urethra excretes urine from bladder to outside of body

Front 537

Urinary bladder

Back 537

smooth, collapsible, muscular sac
temporarily stores urine
Moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long and holds about 500 ml of urine
made of transitional epithelium
trigone

Front 538

Trigone

Back 538

triangular region of the bladder base
three openings
two from ureters, one to the urethra
in males, the prostate gland surrounds the neck of the bladder

Front 539

Urinary bladder wall

Back 539

three layers of smooth muscle collectively called the detrusor muscle
mucosa made of transitional epithelium
walls are thick and folded in an empty bladder
bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal pressure

Front 540

Kidney features

Back 540

right kidney slowly lower than the left due to position of the liver
renal hillum is the region where several structures enter or exit the kidney(ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves)
an adrenal gland sits atop each kidney

Front 541

Blood supply

Back 541

1/4 of total blood supply of body passes through kidneys each minute
Renal artery

Front 542

Renal artery

Back 542

provides each kidney with arterial blood supply

Front 543

Blood flow(kidneys)

Back 543

aorta>renal artery>segmental artery>interlobar artery> arcuate artery> cortical artery>afferent arteriole>glomerulus(capillaries)>efferent arteriole>peritubular capillary>cortical vein>arcuate vein>interlobar vein>renal vein> inferior vena cava

Front 544

Nephron

Back 544

structural and functional unit of the kidney
responsible for forming urine
pathway in nephron

Front 545

Nephron fluid pathway

Back 545

glomerular capsule> proximal convoluted tube(PCT)>loop of Henle>distal convoluted tube(DCT)> collecting duct

Front 546

Types of nephron

Back 546

cortical vs. juxtamedullary nephrons

Front 547

Cortical nephron

Back 547

located in the cortex
includes most nephrons

Front 548

Juxtamedullary nephron

Back 548

found at the boundary of the cortex and medulla

Front 549

Nephron anatomy

Back 549

glomerulus
peritubular capillary bed
vasa recta

Front 550

Glomerulus

Back 550

knot of capillaries covered with podocytes from renal tubule
sits within a glomerular capsule(Bowman's capsule)>first part of renal tubule
fed by afferent arteriole that arises from cortical artery
feeds blood into efferent arteriole
specialized for filtration; high pressure forces fluid and small solutes out of blood and into glomerular capsule

Front 551

Peritubular capillary beds

Back 551

arise from efferent arteriole of glomerulus
normal, low pressure capillaries
adapted for absorption instead of filtration
cling close to renal tubule to reabsorb some substances from collecting tubes

Front 552

Renal corpuscle

Back 552

bowman's capsule
glomerulus(tuft of capillaries)
site of filtration(movement from capillaries to tubules)

Front 553

Collecting duct

Back 553

receives urine from many nephrons
run through the medullary pyramids
delivers urine into the calyces and renal pelvis

Front 554

Urine formation

Back 554

3 events
glomerular filtration
tubular reabsorption
tubular secretion

Front 555

Glomerular filtration

Back 555

water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through capillary walls and pores of the glomerular capsule into the renal tubule
mostly nonselective passive process(size of solute)
filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the renal tubule(GFR=125ml/min)

Front 556

Tubular reabsorption

Back 556

water/sodium(70% absorbed), glucose(100%), amino acids and needed ions
transported out of the filtrate into the tubule cells and then enter the capillary blood
most occur in proximal tubule(mass absorber, brush border has a large surface)

Front 557

Tubular secretion

Back 557

creatinine, and drugs(penicillin), hydrogen, choline, potassium
removed from the peritubular blood and secreted by the tubule cells into the filtrate
important for getting rid of substances not already in filtrate
materials left in renal tubule move toward the ureter

Front 558

Basic renal process

Back 558

glomerular filtration
reabsorption
secretion
excretion

Front 559

Reabsorption

Back 559

from tubules to peritubular capillaries
nitrogenous waste products, uric acid(from nucleic acid breakdown) and creatinine(associated with creatine metabolism in muscles)
diabetes melitus(sweet urine) due to incomplete tubular reabsorption of glucose

Front 560

Secretion

Back 560

from peritubular capillaries to renal tubules

Front 561

Excretion

Back 561

from renal tubules to outside of body

Front 562

Excretion rate

Back 562

amount filtered+amount secreted- amount reabsorbed
for glucose=0(all reabsorbed)
depends on three factors
filtered load, secretion and reabsorption rates

Front 563

Renal handling of solute

Back 563

Amount of solute excreted per minute is less than filtered load>solute is reabsorbed
Amount of solute excreted per minute is greater than filtered load> solute is secreted

Front 564

Clearance

Back 564

volume of plasma from which a substance has been removed by kidneys per unit time
clearance of compound inulin can be used to measure glomerular filtration rate

Front 565

Clearance(formula)

Back 565

excretion/concentration in urine
Ux*V/Px

Front 566

Clearance(renal plasma flow rate)

Back 566

clearance of substance freely filtered, fully secreted and not reabsorbed(renal plasma flow rate)
use PAH to measure this
Amount excreted=amount contained in volume of plasma

Front 567

Micturition(voiding, urination)

Back 567

urine formed in renal tubules
fluid drains into reanl pelvis and into ureter
ureters lead to bladder
Bladder stores urine until it is excreted

Front 568

Sphincter muscles

Back 568

internal vs. external
both must be open(relaxed) to allow micturition(voiding, urination)

Front 569

Internal urethral sphincter

Back 569

relaxed after stretching of the bladder
pelvic splancnic nerves initiate bladder to go into reflex contractions
urine forced past the internal urethra sphincter and the person feels urge to pee

Front 570

External urethral sphincter

Back 570

must be voluntarily relaxed to void

Front 571

Urine(characteristics)

Back 571

1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced
urine and filtrate are different
sterile, slightly aromatic
normal pH of around 6, specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035

Front 572

Filtrate

Back 572

contains everything that blood plasma does(except proteins)

Front 573

Urine

Back 573

what remains after filtrate has lost most of its water, nutrients and necessary ions
contains nitrogenous wastes and substances that are not needed
yellow pigment due to urochrome(from the destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes

Front 574

Urine characteristics(substances found vs not found)

Back 574

Solutes found vs. not found

Front 575

Solute found

Back 575

creatinine, urea, uric acid
sodium and potassium ions
ammonia and bicarbonate ions

Front 576

Solutes not found

Back 576

blood proteins, red blood cells, glucose
hemoglobin, white blood cells(pus), bile

Front 577

Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance

Back 577

blood composition depends on
diet, cellular metabolism, urine output

Front 578

Kidney(4 roles)

Back 578

maintain electrolyte, water balance
ensure blood pH
excrete wastes

Front 579

Osmolarity of fluids

Back 579

300mOsm/liter
no osmotic force for water to move between fluid compartments

Front 580

Kidney(osmolarity changes)

Back 580

kidney compensate changes in osmolarity of ECF by regulating water reabsorption

Front 581

Water balance

Back 581

normovolemia-normal blood volume
Hypervolemia- high blood volume due to positive water balance
Hypovolemia- low blood volume due to negative water balance

Front 582

Water reabsorption in proximal tubule

Back 582

passive based on osmotic gradient
follows solute reabsorption
primary solute that water follows is sodium

Front 583

Obligatory water loss

Back 583

minimum volume of water that must be excreted in the urine per day
400ml
necessary to eliminate solutes that are not reabsorbed

Front 584

Osmolarity urine

Back 584

maximum = 1400 mOsm/liter
minimum = 400 mOsm/liter

Front 585

Maintenance of water balance

Back 585

dilute urine produced if water intake is excessive
less urine(concentrated) produced if large amounts of water are lost(dehydration, sweating)
proper concentration of electrolytes must be present

Front 586

Osmosis

Back 586

water diffuses down concentration gradient
water moves from low to high solute concentration
from high solvent conc. to low solvent conc.
water reabsorption follows solute reabsorption

Front 587

Osmosis(link water and salt)

Back 587

solutes in body include sodium, potassium, and calcium ions
changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from on compartment to another
>alters blood volume, blood pressure
> can impair the activity of cells

Front 588

Counter-current multiplier(loop of Henle)

Back 588

osmotic gradient established by counter-current multiplier
dependent on loop of Henle
Descending vs. Ascending limbs

Front 589

Descending limb(right after PCT)

Back 589

permeable to water
no transport of Na+, Cl-, K+

Front 590

Ascending limb

Back 590

opposite of descending
not permeable to water
transport of Na+, Cl-, K+

Front 591

Counter-current multiplier

Back 591

capillaries of the vasa recta function as countercurrent exchangers
>direction of blood flow around loop of Henle opposite to the direction of filtrate flow around the loop

Front 592

Counter-current multiplier

Back 592

fluid in proximal tubule
fluid(filtrate) in descending limb- osmolarity increases as it descends
fluid in ascending limb- osmolarity decreases as it ascends

Front 593

Vasa recta

Back 593

prevent dissipation of osmotic gradient while supplying nutrients and removing wastes

Front 594

Osmoreceptors

Back 594

cells in the hypothalamus
react to changes in blood composition by becoming more active as osmolarity increases
increase in action potential as osmolarity increases
decrease in action potential as osmolarity decreases

Front 595

Water reabsorption in distal tubule

Back 595

dependent on osmotic gradient established by counter-current multiplier
dependent on epithelium permeability to water

Front 596

Water permeability

Back 596

depends on water channels
aquaporin-3- present in basolateral membrane always
aquaporin-2 - present in apical membrane only when ADH present in blood

Front 597

ADH(action)

Back 597

stimulates insertion of water channels(aquaporin-2) into apical membrane
>water can permeate and is reabsorbed by osmosis
Max osmolarity =1400mOsm/liter

Front 598

ADH

Back 598

posterior pituitary hormone
released from neurosecretory cells originating in hypothalamus
primary stimulus vs. secondary stimuli

Front 599

Primary stimulus

Back 599

increased in osmolarity(osmoreceptors) of plasma

Front 600

Other stimuli

Back 600

decreased blood pressure(baroreceptors)
decreased blood volume

Front 601

ADH(Vasopressin)

Back 601

vasopressin receptor gene in the brain are linked to monogamy and pair bonding in various species
different variations of the gene are linked to varying degrees of commitment to a mate

Front 602

GFR and Water Excretion

Back 602

INcrease in BP causes an increase in glomerular filtration rate due to increased capillary hydrostatic pressure

Front 603

GFR

Back 603

relatively constant with increase in BP due to intrinsic regulation until BP reaches 180 mmHg

Front 604

Blood pressure decrease

Back 604

Blood pressure decrease to less than 80 mmHg
decrease GFR
decrease water filtered(urine)
decrease water excretion

Front 605

Blood pressure increase

Back 605

higher than 180 mmHg
increase GFR
increase water filtered
increase water excretion

Front 606

Renin-angiotensin mechanism

Back 606

mediated by the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the renal tubules
when cells of the JG apparatus stimulated by low blood pressure
renin released by granular cells of the kidney

Front 607

Action of renin

Back 607

ultimately leads to the release of angiotensin II

Front 608

Action of angiotensin II

Back 608

causes vasconstriction
increase in mean arterial pressure(MAP)
increase in thirst
increase in sympathetic activity
>leads to aldosterone release

Front 609

Aldosterone release

Back 609

results in increase in blood volume
>increase in blood pressure

Front 610

Aldosterone(action)

Back 610

increases sodium reabsorption, water follows sodium
steroid hormone
secreted from adrenal gland
acts on principal cells of distal tubules and collecting ducts

Front 611

Aldosterone(action on principal cells)

Back 611

increases number of Na+/K+ pumps on basolateral membrane
increases number of open Na+ and K+ channels on apical membrane
increases K+ secretion

Front 612

Blood pressure regulation by kidney

Back 612

blow pressure decreases
>kidney produces renin
>renin convert angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
>angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II by ACE(angiotensin converting enzyme)
>angiotensin II causes secretion of aldosterone by adrenal gland
>aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption
>water follows sodium, increase in BV
>increase in BP

Front 613

Angiotensin II(wide range of action)

Back 613

increases sympathetic activity
causes aldosterone secretion
arteriolar vasoconstriction>increase in BP
ADH secretion>increase BV> increase BP
increases thirst

Front 614

Regulation(water and electrolytes)

Back 614

regulation occurs primarily by hormones
ADH
Diabetes insipidis
aldosterone

Front 615

ADH

Back 615

prevents excessive water loss in urine
cause the kidney's collecting ducts to reabsorb more water

Front 616

Diabetes insipidis

Back 616

occurs when ADH is not produced
leads to huge outputs of dilute urine
bed wetting

Front 617

Aldosterone

Back 617

regulates sodium ion content of ECF
sodium is the electrolyte most responsible for osmotic water flows
promotes reabsorption of sodium ions
>water follows sodium

Front 618

ANP(Atrial natriuretic peptide)

Back 618

peptide hormone
antagonist to aldosterone
promotes sodium excretion
released from atrium in response to stretch of wall

Front 619

Interactions fluid and electrolyte

Back 619

increase in solute reabsorption increases osmotic gradient for water reabsorption
aldosterone increases sodium transport through principal cells of collecting duct

Front 620

Interactions fluid and electrolyte

Back 620

angiotensin II increases aldosterone and ADH secretion and thirst
ANP decreases aldosterone and ADH secretion

Front 621

Acid-base balance

Back 621

essentials of maintaining balance
sources of acid-base disturbances
defense mechanisms against acid-base disturbances
compensation for acid-base disturbances

Front 622

Acid-base disturbance complications

Back 622

conformation change in protein structure
changes in excitability
changes in balance of other ions
cardiac arrhytmias
vasodillation/ vasoconstriction

Front 623

Acids and Bases

Back 623

acids
bases

Front 624

Acids

Back 624

strong acids dissociate completely and liberate all of their H+ in water
weak acids, such as carbonic acid, dissociate only partially

Front 625

Bases

Back 625

strong bases dissociate easily in water and tie up H+
weak bases, such as bicarbonate ion and ammonia, are slower to accept H+

Front 626

Defense mechanisms against acid-base disturbances

Back 626

acids/bases produced by the body
most acid-base balance is maintained by the kidneys

Front 627

Acids/Bases produced

Back 627

phosphoric acid, lactic acid, fatty acids
carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid
ammonia/base

Front 628

Three lines of defense

Back 628

buffering of hydrogen ions(almost instant)
respiratory compensation (minutes)
renal compensation (hours to days)

Front 629

Buffering

Back 629

quickest defense against changes in pH
most important ECF buffer= bicarbonate HCO3- + H+ <>H2 CO3
intracellular fluid buffers

Front 630

Intracellular fluid(ICF) buffers

Back 630

proteins: protein- + H+ <> H-Protein
phosphates: HPO42- + H+ <> H2PO4-

Front 631

Blood buffers(1st line of defense)

Back 631

three major chemical buffer systems
buffers are molecules that react to prevent dramatic changes in hydrogen ion(H+) concentrations
bind to H+ when pH drops, release H+ when pH rises

Front 632

Three major chemical buffer systems

Back 632

bicarbonate buffer system
phosphate buffer system
protein buffer system

Front 633

Respiratory system control of acid-base balance

Back 633

carbon dioxide in the blood converted to bicarbonate ion and transported in the plasma
increases in hydrogen ion concentration produces more carbonic acid
excess hydrogen ion can be blown off with the release of carbon dioxide from the lungs
respiratory rate can rise and fall depending on changing blood pH

Front 634

Hypo/hyper ventilation

Back 634

hypo will decrease pH
hyper will increase pH

Front 635

Respiratory compensation(2nd line of defense)

Back 635

2nd line of defense takes minutes to have effect
regulates pH by varying ventilation
increase ventilation> decreases CO2> decrease H+>increase pH
decrease ventilation> increases CO2> increase H+>decrease pH

Front 636

Renal compensation(3rd line of defense)

Back 636

takes hours to days
regulate excretion of H+ and bicarbonate in urine
urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0 depending on acid-base balance
regulate synthesis of new bicarbonate in renal tubules
blood pH falls vs. blood pH rises

Front 637

Blood pH falls

Back 637

increase in acidity
increased secretion of hydrogen ions
increased reabsorption of bicarbonate
increase synthesis of new bicarbonate

Front 638

Blood pH rises

Back 638

decrease in acidity
decreased secretion of hydrogen ions
decreased reabsorption of bicarbonate
decrease synthesis of new bicarbonate

Front 639

Carbon dioxide

Back 639

source of acid

Front 640

Normal PCO2 arterial blood

Back 640

40 mmHg

Front 641

CO2

Back 641

sources: metabolism
output of CO2: through respiratory system

Front 642

Respiratory acidosis

Back 642

increases in plasma [CO2}
caused by hypoventilation due to a pathology
increased CO2>increased H+>decrease in blood pH

Front 643

Respiratory acidosis(compensation)

Back 643

renal compensation
increase H+ secretion
increase HCO3- reabsorption and synthesis
no effect on increased CO2

Front 644

Respiratory alkalosis

Back 644

decreases in plasma [CO2]
hyperventilatino due to a pathology
decreased CO2> decreased H+> increase in pH

Front 645

Respiratory alkalosis(compensation)

Back 645

decrease in H+ secretion
decrease in HCO3- reabsorption and synthesis
no effect on decreased CO2

Front 646

Metabolic acidosis

Back 646

decrease in pH(increase in H+) due to something other than carbon dioxide
usually low free bicarbonate

Front 647

Metabolic acidosis(causes)

Back 647

high protein diet
high fat diet
heavy exercise
severe diarrhea(loss of bicarbonate)
renal dysfunction

Front 648

Metabolic acidosis(compensation)

Back 648

respiratory and renal compensations

Front 649

respiratory compensation

Back 649

increased ventilation>decrease CO2

Front 650

Renal compensation

Back 650

increase in H+ secretion
increase in HCO3- reabsorption and synthesis

Front 651

Metabolic alkalosis

Back 651

increase in pH(decrease in H+) through something other than CO2
(usually high free bicarbonate)

Front 652

Metabolic alkalosis(causes)

Back 652

excessive vomiting
consumption of alkaline products(baking soda)
renal dysfunction

Front 653

Metabolic alkalosis(respiratory compensation)

Back 653

decrease in ventilation>increase in CO2

Front 654

Renal compensation

Back 654

decrease in H+ secretion
decrease in HCO3- reabsorption and synthesis

Front 655

Acid-base disturbances

Back 655

Arterial pH
pH higher vs. lower than 7.35

Front 656

pH higher than 7.35

Back 656

alkalosis
metabolic vs. respiratory alkalosis

Front 657

Metabolic alkalosis(+compensation)

Back 657

metabolic alkalosis(HCO3- > 24 mM)
>causes respiratory compensation
>PCO2>40 mmHG

Front 658

Respiratory alkalosis(+compensation)

Back 658

PCO2<40 mmHg
>causes renal compensation
>[HCO3-] <24 mM

Front 659

pH lower than 7.35

Back 659

acidosis
respiratory vs metabolic acidosis

Front 660

Respiratory acidosis

Back 660

PCO2>40 mmHg
>causes renal compensation
>[HCO3-] > 24 mM increases

Front 661

Metabolic acidosis

Back 661

[HCO3-]<24 mM
>respiratory compensation
>PCO2<40 mmHg

Front 662

Gonads

Back 662

primary sex organs
produce gametes(sex cells) and secrete hormones
testes in males, sperm are the male gametes
ovaries in females, ova(eggs) are the female gametes

Front 663

Bipotential

Back 663

humans start life as bipotential
ability to form male or female genitalia

Front 664

Sexual reproduction

Back 664

involves fusion of gametes from two parents>results in genetic variation among offspring
may enhance reproductive success in changing environments
allows for variety of phenotypes

Front 665

Sex organs(testes, ovaries)

Back 665

both have a set of gonads where gametes are produced
both have ducts for delivery of the gonads and structures for copulation

Front 666

Males reproductive system

Back 666

testes
duct system
accessory organs
external genitalia

Front 667

Testes(coverings)

Back 667

covered by tunica albuginea(capsule that surrounds each testis)
septa>extensions of the capsule that extend into the testis and divide it into lobules

Front 668

Lobules

Back 668

contains 1 to 4 four seminiferous tubules
tightly coiled structures
function as sperm-forming factories
empty sperm into the rete testis(first part of duct system)

Front 669

Duct system

Back 669

epididymis>ductus(vas) deferens> urethra

Front 670

Accessory organs

Back 670

seminal vesicles
prostate
bulbourethral glands

Front 671

External genitalia

Back 671

penis
scrotum

Front 672

Sperm pathway

Back 672

steven up
seminiferous tubules>rete testis> epididymis>vas deferens> ejaculatory duct> urethra> penis

Front 673

Instertitial cells

Back 673

in the seminefous tubules
produce androgens such as testosterone

Front 674

Ductus deferens

Back 674

carries sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct
passes through inguinal canal and over the bladder
moves sperm by peristalsis
ends in the ejaculatory duct which unites with the urethra
extended is called the ampulla

Front 675

Spermatic cord

Back 675

includes the ductus deferens, blood vessels and nerves in a connective tissue sheath

Front 676

Ejaculation

Back 676

smooth muscle in the walls of the ductus deferens create peristaltic waves to squeeze sperm forward

Front 677

Vasectomy

Back 677

occurs by cutting the vas deferens at the level of the testes to prevent transportation of sperm

Front 678

Urethra

Back 678

extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis
carries both sperm and urine
sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct
regions of urethra

Front 679

Regions of the urethra

Back 679

prostatic urethra- surrounded by prostate
membranous urethra- from protastic urethra to penis
spongy urethra- runs the length of the penis

Front 680

Semen

Back 680

mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions
seminal vesicles
prostatic glands
bulbourethral glands

Front 681

Seminal vesicles

Back 681

located at base of bladdeer
produce thick yellowish secretion(60% of semen)
fructose(sugar), vitamin C(potent antioxidant)
prostaglandings, other substances that nourish the sperm

Front 682

Prostaglandins

Back 682

promote smooth muscle contraction

Front 683

Prostate

Back 683

encircles the upper part of the urethra
secretes a milky, alkaline fluid
helps to activate sperm and neutralize acidic environment in vagina
fluid enters the urethra through several small ducts

Front 684

Bulbourethral glands

Back 684

pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate
produces thick, clear mucus known as pre-ejaculate
cleanses the urethra of acidic urine
serves as lubricant during sexual intercourse
secreted into the penile urethra

Front 685

External genitalia

Back 685

scrotum
penis
three areas of spongy erectile tissue around the urethra
erections occurs when erectile tissue fills with blood during sexual excitement

Front 686

SCrotum

Back 686

divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
maintain testes at 3C lower than normal body temperature to protect sperm viability

Front 687

Penis

Back 687

delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract
regions of penis

Front 688

Regions of penis

Back 688

shaft
glans penis(enlarged tip)
prepuce(foreskin) folded cuff of skin around proximal end that may be removed by circumcision

Front 689

Descending testes

Back 689

boy's testes normally develop in the abdomen
before birth at around 32 to 36 weeks
normal descend through flexible tube called inguinal canal and end up in scrotum

Front 690

Undescended testes

Back 690

can occur in premature boys and may be corrected with surgery

Front 691

Spermatogenesis

Back 691

production of sperm cells
begins at puberty and continues throughout life
occurs in seminiferous tubules
takes 65 to 75 days

Front 692

spermatogonia(stem cells)

Back 692

undergo rapid mitosis to produce more stem cells before puberty

Front 693

FSH(follicle stimulating hormone)

Back 693

modulates spermatogonia division
one cell produced is a stem cell, called a type A daughter cell
other cell is a primary spermatocyte, called a type B daughter cell

Front 694

Spermatogenesis II

Back 694

primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
primary spermatocyte produces four haploid spermatids

Front 695

Spermatids

Back 695

have 23 chromosomes(half as much material as other body cells)

Front 696

Late spermatids

Back 696

produced with distinct regions
head, midpiece, tail

Front 697

Sperm cell

Back 697

mature spermatids

Front 698

Spermiogenesis

Back 698

final stage of spermatogenesis

Front 699

Mature sperm cell anatomy

Back 699

only human flagellated cell
head
midpiece
tail

Front 700

Sperm head

Back 700

contains DNA
acrosome is a helmet protecting the nucleus similar to a large lysoszome which breaks down and releases enzymes to help the sperm penetrate an egg

Front 701

Midpiece

Back 701

wrapped by mitochondria for ATP generation

Front 702

Tail

Back 702

allows for motion, contains a mitochondria

Front 703

Testosterone

Back 703

most important hormone produced by the testes
produced by interstitial cells

Front 704

Interstitial cells

Back 704

activated by LH (luteinizing hormone) during puberty
> leads to production of testosterone

Front 705

Testosterone functions

Back 705

stimulates reproductive organ development
underlies sex drive
causes secondary sex characteristics

Front 706

Secondary sex characteristics

Back 706

deepening of voice
increased hair growth
enlargement of skeletal muscles
thickening of bones

Front 707

Ovaries

Back 707

composed of ovarian follicles(sac-like structures)
consist of oocytes(immature eggs)
and follicular cells which surround the oocyte

Front 708

Follicles

Back 708

nurture and eggs and produce sex hormones

Front 709

Oviducts(Fallopian tubes)

Back 709

convey eggs to the uterus
uterus opens into the vagina which receives the penis during intercourse and forms the birth canal

Front 710

Duct system

Back 710

uterine tubes
uterus
vagina

Front 711

Uterune tubes

Back 711

receive the ovulated oocyte
provide a site for fertilization
attach to the uterus
little or no contact between the ovaries and uterine tubes
supported and enclosed by the broad ligament

Front 712

Uterus

Back 712

located between the urinary bladder and rectum, hollow organ
recieves, retains and nourishes fertilized egg

Front 713

Uterus(regions)

Back 713

body is main portion
fundus
cervix

Front 714

fundus

Back 714

is the superior rounded region above where uterine tube enters

Front 715

cervix

Back 715

narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina

Front 716

Fimbriae

Back 716

finger-like projections at the distal end of the uterine tube that receive the oocyte from the ovary

Front 717

Cilia

Back 717

located inside the uterine tube
slowly move the oocyte towrd the uterus(takes3-4 days)

Front 718

Fertilization

Back 718

occurs inside the uterine tube since oocyte lives about 24 hours

Front 719

Uterus(walls)

Back 719

endometrium
myometrium
perimetrium

Front 720

Endometrium

Back 720

allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs(menses)
endometriosis

Front 721

Endometriosis

Back 721

condition in which tissue that behave like the cell lining the uterus(endometrium) grows in other areas of the body,
> causes pain, irregular bleeding and possible infertility

Front 722

Myometrium

Back 722

middle layer of smooth muscle

Front 723

Perimitrium

Back 723

outermost serous later of uterus

Front 724

Vagina

Back 724

extends from cervix to exterior of body
located between bladder and rectum
serves a birth canal
receives penis during sexual intercourse
hymen partially closes the vagina until the hymen is ruptured

Front 725

External genitalia

Back 725

mons pubis
labia
clitoris
urethal orifice, vaginal orifice, greater vestibular glands

Front 726

Mons pubis

Back 726

fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
covered with pubic hair after puberty

Front 727

Labia

Back 727

labia majora- hair covered skin folds
labia minora- delicate, hair-free folds of skin

Front 728

Clitoris

Back 728

contains erectile tissue
corresponds to male penis
similar to penis
removed during female circumcisions(now called female genital mutilation)

Front 729

Clitoris similar to penis

Back 729

hood by prepuce
sensitive erectile tissue
becomes swollen during sexual excitement

Front 730

Perineum

Back 730

diamond-shaped region between the anterior ends of the labial folds , anus posteriorly and ischial tuberosities laterally

Front 731

Oogenesis

Back 731

total supply of eggs are present at birth
ability to release eggs begins at puberty
reproductive ability ends at menopause

Front 732

Oocytes

Back 732

matured in developing ovarian follicles

Front 733

Oogonia

Back 733

female stem cells found in a developing fetus and no longer exist by the time of birth
undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes

Front 734

Primary oocytes

Back 734

surrounded by cells that form primary follicles in the ovary
inactive until puberty

Front 735

FSH(follicle stimulating hormone)

Back 735

cause some primary follicles to mature each month

Front 736

Ovarian cycle

Back 736

composed of cyclic monthly changes

Front 737

Meiosis(follicle)

Back 737

restarts inside maturing follicle
produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body

Front 738

Follicle development

Back 738

follicle development to the stage of a vesicular follicle takes about 14 days

Front 739

LH(luteinizing hormone)

Back 739

its release causes ovulation of a secondary oocyte

Front 740

Secondary oocyte

Back 740

released and surrounded by a corona radiata and zona pellucida

Front 741

Oogenesis

Back 741

meiosis is completed after ovulation iff sperm penetrates
ovum produced, two additional polar bodies may be produced
once ovum is formed, the 23 chromosomes can be combined with those of the sperm to form the fertilized egg(zygote)

Front 742

Oogenesis

Back 742

if secondary oocyte is not penetrated by a sperm
>dies and does not complete meiosis to form an ovum

Front 743

Ovarian cycle

Back 743

includes changes in the ovary that occur about every 28 days
menstrual/uterine cycle involves changes that occur in the uterus
pick of LH, estrogen and FSH at day 14, progesterone peaks later on

Front 744

Ovarian follicle stages

Back 744

primary follicle contains an immature oocyte
graafian follicle is the growing follicle with a maturing oocyte

Front 745

Ovulation

Back 745

when the egg is mature, the follicle ruptures
occurs about every 28 days
ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum

Front 746

Follicle

Back 746

secrete estrogen
1-5 days: menstrual phase
5-14 profliferative phase
15-28 secretory phase

Front 747

Ovulation

Back 747

hormonal events before ovulation vs. after ovulation

Front 748

Hormonal events before ovulation

Back 748

hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
FSH triggers growth of the follicle
As follicle grows it secretes estrogen which causes a burst in LH levels, leading to ovulation

Front 749

Hormonal events at and after ovulation

Back 749

after ovulation the follicle becomes the corpus luteum
corpus luteum secretes both estrogen and progesterone

Front 750

Estrogen and progesterone

Back 750

exert negative feeback on the hypothalamus and pituatary causing a decline in FSH and LH levels

Front 751

No fertilization

Back 751

progesterone and estrogen levels decrease(when corpus luteum disintegrates)
> the hypothalamus can once again stimulate the pituitary to secrete more FSH and LH
> a new cycle begins

Front 752

Menstrual/uterine cycle

Back 752

controlled by estrogen and progesterone

Front 753

Fertilization

Back 753

if it occurs, human chorionic gonadotropin from the embryo maintains the uterine lining and prevents menstruation(later released by the placenta)

Front 754

Uterine cycle

Back 754

cyclic changes of the endometrium regulated by cyclic production of hormones
both female cycle(ovarian and uterine) are about 28 days in length
ovulation typically occurs about midway through cycle on day 14

Front 755

Stages of mentrual cycle

Back 755

menstrual phase
proliferative stage/follicular
secretory stage/luteal

Front 756

Menstrual phase

Back 756

days 1-5
functional layer of endometrium is sloughed, bleeding occurs for 3-5 days

Front 757

proliferative stage/follicular

Back 757

days 6- 14
regeneration of functinal layer of the endometrium
estrogen levels rise, ovulation occurs at the end of this stage

Front 758

Secretory stage/luteal

Back 758

day 15-28
levels of progesterone rise and increase the blood supply to endomertium
endometrium increases in size and prepares for implantation

Front 759

If fertilization occurs

Back 759

embryo produces hCG that causes the corpus luteum to continue producing its hormones

Front 760

If fertilization does not occur

Back 760

corpus luteum degenerates and levels of hormone it releases declines

Front 761

Hormones produced by ovaries

Back 761

estrogen
progesterone

Front 762

Estrogen

Back 762

produced by follicle cells
cause secondary sex characteristics
enlargement of accessory organs
development of breasts
appearance of axillary and pubic hair
increase in fat beneath the skin, particularly in hips and breasts
widening and lightening of the pelvis
onset of menses(menstrual cycle)

Front 763

Progesterone

Back 763

produced by the corpus luteum
production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
does not contribute to the appearance of secondary sex characteristics
helps maintain pregnancy
prepare the breasts for milk production

Front 764

Developmental aspect

Back 764

breast development signal puberty(often around age 11)

Front 765

Menarche

Back 765

first menstrual period

Front 766

Menopause

Back 766

occurs when a year has passed without menstruation
ovaries stop functioning as endocrine glands
childbearing ability ends
no equivalent of menopause in men, but steady decline is testosterone

Front 767

Zygote

Back 767

2n or 46 chromosomes
created by the union of a sperm(23 chromosomes) with an egg(23 chromosomes)

Front 768

Ectopic pregnancy

Back 768

abnormal pregnancy that occurs outside the womb(uterus)
in fallopian tube called tubal pregnancy

Front 769

Fertilization

Back 769

oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours after ovulation
sperm viable for 24 to 48 hours after ejaculation

Front 770

Fertilization(conditions)

Back 770

sexual intercourse must occur no more than 2 days before ovulation and no later than 24 hours after
sperm must make their way to the uterine tube for fertilization to be possible

Front 771

Fertilization process

Back 771

sperm surface protein bind to egg receptor proteins
> sperm and egg plasma membranes fuse and two nuclei unite
>causes changes in the egg membrane
>prevent multiple fertilization (polyspermy)

Front 772

Zygote

Back 772

fertilized egg
develop into an embryo

Front 773

Capacitation

Back 773

process in which the spermatozoa, after it reaches the ampulla of the Fallopian tube, undergoes a series of changes that lead to its ability to fertilize an ovum

Front 774

Morula

Back 774

totipotent cell
can become an entire organism

Front 775

Blastocyst

Back 775

contains an inner cell mass of pluripotent cells
can become any tissue type

Front 776

Mutipotent

Back 776

e,g blood stem cells> can become blood

Front 777

Cleavage

Back 777

produces a ball of cells from the zygote through a rapid series of cell divisions that results in a morula(solid ball)
Morula>blastocyst(hollow ball with cell mass)> gastrula(ball with invagination)

Front 778

Blastocyst

Back 778

morula is a ball-like circle of cell, begins at about the 100-cell stage that becomes the blastocyst
secretes human chorionic gonadotropin to induce the corpus luteum to continue producing hormones

Front 779

Blastocyst(functional areas)

Back 779

trophoblast is the outer layer of the large fluid filled sphere
inner cell mass is a cluster of cells to one side
the late blastocyst forms after hatching and implants in the wall of the uterus and becomes gastrula

Front 780

Gastrula

Back 780

3 layers
ectoderm(outside), mesoderm(middle), endoderm(inside layer)
archenteron cavity of gastrula

Front 781

Layers

Back 781

ectoderm-skin
mesoderm- muscle
endoderm- pancreas

Front 782

Human development

Back 782

divided into three trimesters
each about 3 months long
most rapid changes occur in first trimester

Front 783

Development after implantation

Back 783

chorionic vili(projections of the blastocyst) develop and cooperate with cells of the uterus to form the placenta

Front 784

Amnion

Back 784

fluid filled sac that surrounds the embryo

Front 785

Umbilical cord

Back 785

blood-vessel containing stalk of tissue
attaches the embryo to the placenta

Front 786

Embryo

Back 786

umbilical veins carry oxygenated blood
umbilical arteries return embryonic blood to placenta

Front 787

Placenta

Back 787

forms a barrier between mother and embryo(blood is not exchanged)
delivers nutrients and oxygen
removes waste from embryonic blood
becomes an endocrine gland

Front 788

Placenta (as endocrine gland)

Back 788

produces hormones
takes over for the corpus luteum (by end of 7 month) by producing
estrogen, progesterone and other hormones that maintain pregnancy(hCG)

Front 789

Fetus(beginning of the ninth week)

Back 789

embryonic induction
all organ system are formed by end of 8th week
activities of the fetus are growth and organ specialization
stage of tremendous growth and change in appearance

Front 790

Embryonic induction

Back 790

initiates organ formation
during this phase, adjacent cells and cell layers influence each other's differentiation via chemical signals

Front 791

Sex determination

Back 791

under normal circumstances
presence of Y chromosome> functional SRY gene> leads to development of a male
absence of SRY gene is signal to form a female

Front 792

Default pathway

Back 792

forming a female is the default pathway

Front 793

SRY protein

Back 793

initiates the development of the male gonads(testes) instead of the default pathway of developing into a female)

Front 794

Ducts(female vs. male)

Back 794

Wolfian ducts> develop in males
Mullerian ducts> develop in females

Front 795

SRY gene

Back 795

if on XX person will develop as a male

Front 796

Sex determination(bipotential gonads)

Back 796

> originally both sets of ducts are present
but then differentiation occurs(wolffian vs. mullerian)

Front 797

SRY gene

Back 797

sex determining region on y
codes for testes determining factor(TDF)

Front 798

TDF

Back 798

leads to the formation of the testes

Front 799

Mullerian ducts

Back 799

form female reproductive tract
developing as a female is the default pathway

Front 800

Wolffian ducts

Back 800

form male reproductive tract

Front 801

Pseudohermaphrodites

Back 801

may develop if testosterone levels are not significant or if testosterone receptor is faulty

Front 802

Guevedoces

Back 802

congenital 5-alpha-reductase
girls who have penis at 12; due to low levels of DHT
DHT has higher affinity for androgen than testosterone
at puberty very high levels of testosterone are produced
> males fertile

Front 803

Defective androgen receptors

Back 803

cause a condition called androgen insensitivity
while testes form and androgens are produced, body does not respond to them
default pathway takes place

Front 804

Default pathway

Back 804

maintain mullerian ducts and the wolffian duct regresses
>blind-ending vagina, X-linked, sterile females

Front 805

Second trimester

Back 805

involves an increase in size and general refinement of the human features
at 20 weeks, fetus>19cm
weighs 1/2 lb

Front 806

Third trimester

Back 806

ends in birth

Front 807

Labor

Back 807

a series of strong, rhythmic contractions of the uterus
brings about birth
rhythmic expulsive contractions, operates by positive feedback mechanism

Front 808

Full-term pregnancy

Back 808

normally 40 weeks
but ranges from 38 to 42 weeks

Front 809

Estrogen(labor)

Back 809

induces receptors for oxytocin on uterus
oxytocin> causes smooth rhythmic contractions and stimulate production of prostaglanding>more contraction of uterus
>pressure on cervix causes production of oxytocin

Front 810

Oxytocin(love)

Back 810

high levels of oxytocin produce love response
love hormone fills brain
cause women to absolutely love their babies

Front 811

Fake labor

Back 811

Braxton hicks
contraction are weak, irregular uterine contractions

Front 812

Initiation of labor

Back 812

estrogen causes the formation of oxytocin receptors in the uterus
oxytocin causes smooth rhythmic contraction> and production of prostaglandins by placenta leading to more contraction
pressure on cervix also causes more oxytocin to be secreted

Front 813

Labor(3 stages)

Back 813

Dilation
Expulsion
delivery of placenta

Front 814

Dilation

Back 814

cervix becomes dilated(full dilation 10cm), softens and thins
uterine contractions begin and increase
amnion ruptures(breaking the water)
longest stage at 6-12 hours

Front 815

Expulsion

Back 815

infant passes through the cervix and vagina
can last as long as 2 hours
typically 50 min 1st birth 20 in 2nd
normal delivery-head first
breech delivery-buttocks first

Front 816

Placental delivery

Back 816

delivery of placenta
accomplished within 15 min after birth of infant
afterbirth-placenta and other fetal membranes
all placental fragments must be removed to avoid postpartum bleeding

Front 817

Childbirth

Back 817

parturition

Front 818

Contraception(barrier methods)

Back 818

diaphragms, cervical caps, condoms, spermicidal foams, gels, sponges

Front 819

Intrauterine device

Back 819

IUD
plastic or metal device(irritates tissue) inserted into uterus
prevents implantation of fertilized egg

Front 820

Contraception(sterilization)

Back 820

tubal ligation(female)-cut or cauterize uterine tubes
vasectomy- cut or cauterize the ductus deferens

Front 821

Rythm(fertility awareness)

Back 821

avoid intercourse during period of ovulation or fertility
record daily basal temperature(body temp rises after ovulation)
record changes in pattern of salivary mucus

Front 822

Contraception(pills)

Back 822

birth control pill
morning after pill

Front 823

Birth control pill

Back 823

most use contraceptive
relatively constant supply of ovarian hormones from pill is similar to pregancy
ovarian follicles do not mature, ovulation ceases, menstrual flow is reduced, cervix coated with mucous layer

Front 824

Morning after pill(plan B)

Back 824

high levels of regular birth control pills
taken within 3 days of unprotected intercouse
disrupts normal hormonal signals to the point that fertilization is prevented
causes shedding of placenta

Front 825

Abortion

Back 825

termination of pregancy

Front 826

Mifepristone(RU486)

Back 826

abortion pill
induces miscarriage during first 7 weeks of pregnancy
progesterone antagonist
given with prostaglandins analog

Front 827

Miscarriage

Back 827

often a spontaneous abortion is common
occurs before a woman knows she is pregnant