Human Development Final

Front 1

1. Perspective taking:

Back 1

The ability to understand others’ viewpoints; it contributes to many social skills (i.e. understand other’s emotions, appreciating false belief, developing referential communication, self-concept & self-esteem, person perception, reducing prejudice). It improves greatly from childhood to adolescence. Angry, aggressive young people have trouble imagining the thoughts and feelings of others. Good perspective taking is crucial for mature social behavior, and children with good perspective taking are more likely to show empathy and sympathy.

Front 2

2.) Characteristics of friendships for children in preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence

Back 2

(i.e., Damon’s three-stage sequence of friendship - pp. 611-612)
(1.) Friendship as a handy playmate (Preschool: 4-7) A friend is someone who likes you and that you play with and with whom you share toys. A friendship at this age may dissolve when one refuses to share, hits, or is not available to play.
(2.) Friendship as Mutual Trust and Assistance (Middle Childhood:8-10) Friendship becomes more complex and psychologically based. Trust becomes the defining feature of friendship here. Good friendship is based on acts of kindness signifying that each person can be counted on to support the other. Takes more time and effort- apologies needed.
(3.) Friendship as intimacy, mutual understanding, and loyalty (Adolescence:11-15+) only an extreme falling out ends friendship.

Front 3

3.) Social competence - know definition given in class & examples of socially competent behaviors

Back 3

“The ability to achieve personal goals in social interaction while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others over time and across situations.”
↳Examples: Social problem solving skills, conversational skills, perspective taking, emotional self-regulation, moral self-regulation, distributive justice, obeying structured rules, etc.

Front 4

4.) Social problem solving skills

Back 4

-Generating and applying strategies that prevent or resolve disagreements, resulting in outcomes that are both acceptable to others and beneficial to the self.
-Taking into account playmates’ perspectives and goals.
-Training in social problem solving leads to gains in social information processing and adjustment.
-Social problem solving profoundly affects peer relations.
- teaching these skills
● Intervening
● Discuss and act out with puppets
● Point out consequences and help them think of alternative strategies
● Lessons after generating and evaluating strategies
● Practice enacting responses → makes them apply it and gives alternatives
● Family intervention (because of modeling)

- effects and benefits of possessing these skills
● Interpret social cues accurately
● Formulate goals (being helpful to peers)
● Enhance relationships
● Have a repertoire of effective problem-solving strategies
● Sense of mastery through stress; decrease risk of adjustment difficulties
● Decrease aggression
● Increase social competence

Front 5

Instrumental vs hostile

Back 5

Most common form of aggression. Children act aggressively to fulfill a need or desire and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal, no deliberate attempt to harm another person.
↳For example, obtaining an object, privilege, space, social award, need for attention, peer admiration etc. Headbutter from the class video.

Front 6

Hostile/reactive Aggression

Back 6

Angry, defensive response to a provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person.
3 types of Proactive and reactive
↳Physical, Verbal, Relational

Front 7

Relational vs. overt aggression

Back 7

They both are forms of hostile aggression. However, overt aggression harms others through physical injury or the threat of. Where as relational aggression damages another’s relationship. ex: spreading rumors.

Front 8

Verbal aggression

Back 8

harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing.

Front 9

Relational aggression

Back 9

Damages another’s peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation. It can be either direct or indirect..

Front 10

Physical/overt aggression

Back 10

a form of aggression that harms others through physical injury or the threat of such injury (e.g. hitting, kicking, threatening to beat up)

-Overt aggression: Obvious, not hidden aggression?
● i think overt is more of a physical thing

Boys are more physically aggressive than girls
Sex differences in verbal and relational aggression are small

Front 11

2.) General characteristics of aggressive children (i.e., social-cognitive deficits and distortions)

Back 11

1. Tend to remain aggressive over time. Irritable, fearless, impulsive, and overactive children are at risk for aggression.
2. Tend to care more about being in control than being liked by peers.
3. Have an overly high self-esteem, even in the face of academic and social failings.
4. Believe there are more benefits and fewer costs for engaging in destructive acts.
5. Blame their victims.
6. Retain a positive self-evaluation after behaving aggressively.
7. Delayed in maturity of moral judgement.
8. Low in moral self- relevance. (Boys lower than girls)
9. Bistrategic controllers view themselves as both aggressive and socially skilled (and classmates agree)

Front 12

Authoritative Parenting

Back 12

(warmth and control) demanding and responsive. A rational, democratic approach in which both parents' and children's rights are respected. Most successful.
-high acceptance of & involvement in child’s life, adaptive control techniques and appropriate autonomy granting
● Make reasonable demands for maturity; enforce them by setting limits and insisting on obedience; express warmth and affection and responsiveness; listen patiently to their child's point of view; encourage participation in family decision making; inductive reasoning (reasoning about consequences of actions to self and to others); good natured/easy going; involved in child's life (school, homework, activities)

Front 13

Authoritative Parenting Outcomes

Back 13

happy, high self esteem/self control, less traditional gender-role behaviors, social/moral maturity, academic achievement, perspective taking skills, friendly-assertive/liked by peers, consequential thinking, emotional regulation, lower levels of internalizing/externalizing

Front 14

Authoritarian Parenting

Back 14

(controlling and no warmth; the opposite of authoritative) demanding but low in responsiveness to children's rights and needs. Conformity and obedience are valued over open communication.
-low acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, low in autonomy granting
● Very little give-and-take; cold, harsh unresponsive, even rejecting; parent centered; forceful; physical punishment (spanking, slapping, grabbing); verbal hostility (yelling, threatening, demeaning); coercive; uninvolved;
● psychological control, withhold love as punishment

Front 15

Authoritarian Parenting Outcomes

Back 15

unhappy, anxious, low self esteem and self-reliance; hostile when frustrated, less social strategies(toolbox), peer rejection, externalizing disorders

Front 16

Permissive parenting

Back 16

(non-controlling and warmth) responsive but undemanding. An overly tolerant approach to child rearing.
● Nurturing and accepting, but avoids making demands or imposing controls; complete independence in decision making (regardless of age or context); no rules; no constraints on behavior
○ Dr. Nelson example of a mansion with colored doors-children left to decipher safe doors by themselves

Front 17

Permissive parenting outcomes

Back 17

impulsive, disobedient, rebellious; overly demanding and dependent on adults, less persistence in tasks, poor school achievement, more antisocial behavior. often delinquency (especially for boys)

Front 18

Uninvolved Parenting

Back 18

(non-controlling and no warmth) neglectful parenting; undemanding and unresponsive. Reflects minimal commitment to child rearing. parents often depressed and unattached.
-low acceptance & involvement, little control, indifference to autonomy=neglect

Front 19

Uninvolved parenting Outcomes

Back 19

problems in all aspects of development: attachment, emotional self regulation, school achievement, antisocial behavior

Front 20

Oversolicitous Parenting

Back 20

overprotective and over controlling (although from good intent)
● See threat to child’s safety in everything. Not allowing children to make decisions for themselves; not allowing children to try new things; encourage dependence on parents; handle all problems for their children

Front 21

Oversolicitous Parenting Outcomes

Back 21

anxiety, social fearfulness, social withdrawal, negative self-regard, peer rejection

Front 22

Coregulation

Back 22

A form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while permitting children to take charge of moment-by-moment decision making

Front 23

Autonomy

Back 23

In adolescence, a sense of oneself as a separate, self-governing individual. Involves relying more on oneself and less on parents for support, guidance, and decision making.

Front 24

interaction between siblings who are close in age have what kind of impact

Back 24

● Compare each other more when closer in age- even more if the same sex.
● Unique context for expanding social competence
● Siblings close in age relate to each other more equally than parents/children
● Sibling interaction contributes to emotional/mental understanding/empathy, perspective taking, moral maturity; also predicts favorable adjustment (p. 582)

Front 25

what family/parental factors predict positive sibling interaction

Back 25

-Warmth from mother to all children encourages sibling interaction
-Maternal harshness and lack of involvement result in increasing antagonistic sibling relationships (p. 582)

Front 26

family size now vs. 1950s

Back 26

● 1960: avg # of children per North American couple-3.1 (p. 580)
● Now: avg # of children per North American couple-1.8
family size decline fits better with women’s career plans, more couples divorce today before childbearing plans complete, marital instability (p. 580)

Front 27

outcomes for the children of never-married parents

Back 27

Children of never-married mothers who lack a father’s warmth and involvement achieve less well in school and engage in more antisocial behavior than children in low-SES, 1st marriage families (p. 586)

Front 28

spousal support needed in dual-income families

Back 28

● Father’s willingness to share child-care responsibilities is crucial; otherwise, mother carries double load-home and work--> fatigue, distress and little time/energy for children (p. 592)
● Dual-income families need support from work settings and communities in their child-rearing roles-part-time employment, flexible schedules, job sharing, paid leave, equal pay/equal employment for women (p. 592)

Front 29

approximate proportion of marriages ending up in divorce

Back 29

○ 45% of U.S. marriages end in divorce (pg 586).

Front 30

proportion of children living in a single-parent household

Back 30

○ At any given time, one-fourth of American and one-fifth of Canadian children live in single-parent households.

Front 31

consequences of joint custody

Back 31

○ The transitions between homes, school, and peer groups can be difficult for children.
○ Joint-custody parents report little conflict
○ The children tend to be better adjusted than their counterparts in sole maternal-custody homes.

Front 32

parenting characteristics of fathers who only occasionally see their children after divorce

Back 32

○ Fathers are often permissive and indulgent-- making the mother’s job more difficult

Front 33

Blended or Reconstituted family

Back 33

○ Family consisting of parent, stepparent, and children.

Front 34

problems associated with Blended or Reconstituted family

Back 34

○ Switching to stepparents’ new rules and expectations can be stressful, and children often regard them as intruders
○ Older children and girls have the hardest time.

Front 35

Impact of emotional and physical child abuse

Back 35

● The family circumstances impact the development of emotional self-regulation, empathy and sympathy, self-concept, social skills, and academic motivation.
● Over time, show serious learning and adjustment difficulties (academic failure, severe depression, aggression, peer difficulties, substance abuse, and delinquency).
● Emotional and behavior problems often persist into adulthood.
● Repeated abuse is associated with central nervous system damage...over time they trauma seems to blunt children’s normal physiological response to stress.

Front 36

Levels of social play

Back 36

Nonsocial Activity: unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play
Parallel Play: plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior; a limited form of social participation
Associative Play: Children engage in separate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another’s behavior
Cooperative Play: A more advanced type of interaction. Children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme.

Front 37

Nonsocial Activity

Back 37

unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play

Front 38

Parallel Play

Back 38

plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior; a limited form of social participation

Front 39

Associative Play

Back 39

Children engage in separate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another’s behavior

Front 40

Cooperative Play

Back 40

A more advanced type of interaction. Children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme.

Front 41

Make believe play - know how parents can encourage it.

Back 41

parents can play along with the children in the make believe play, and also by example

Front 42

Reticence, know the effects that it has on peer acceptance.

Back 42

Consists of on looking (prolonged looking at peer(s) w/o accompanying play) and/or being unoccupied (doing nothing). [Fear]

Front 43

Solitary-passive, know the effects that it has on peer acceptance.

Back 43

Behavior comprises the quiescent exploration of objects and/or constructive activity while playing alone. [Disinterest]

Front 44

Solitary-active, know the effects that it has on peer acceptance.

Back 44

Behavior is characterized by solitary-functional play (repeated sensorimotor actions with or with out objects) and/or by solitary dramatic/pretend play. [Exclusion]

Front 45

Influences on peer sociability

Back 45

● Direct parental influence- help children learn how to be friendly when interacting with others.
● Indirect parental influence- secure attachments to parents are linked to more responsive peer interactions. Parent child play. High quality of the parent’s social network influences peer relations in children.
● Age mix of children- Children profit from interacting with both same-age and mixed- age children.
● Cultural values- North American preschoolers are more likely to reject reticent classmates. Other cultures are more accepting and willing to include a quiet child.

Front 46

What the peer group provides versus what friends provide (p. 619)

Back 46

● Peer groups generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers. They provide practice in cooperation, leadership, followership, and loyalty to collective goals
● Friendships contribute to the development of trust, sensitivity, and intimacy.

Front 47

Sociometric Techniques

Back 47

self reports which measure social preferences
-Unlike friendship, peer acceptance is not a mutual relationship, but rather a one-sided perspective, involving the group’s view of an individual.

Front 48

Peer Acceptance

Back 48

Popular Children: get many positive votes (are well-liked)
Rejected Children: get many negative votes (are disliked)
Controversial Children: get a large number of positive and negative votes (are both liked and disliked)
Neglected Children: are seldom mentioned, either positively or negatively

Front 49

Rejected-withdrawn children

Back 49

passive and socially awkward. They are overwhelmed by social anxiety, hold negative expectations for treatment by peers, and fear being scorned and attacked. They usually feel like retaliating rather than compromising in peer conlficts.

Front 50

● Popular-prosocial children

Back 50

combine academic and social competence. They are good students and are able to communicate with peers in sensitive, friendly, and cooperative ways. They are able to solve social problems constructively.
- origins/determinants/characteristics of rejected, popular, average, and neglected children

Front 51

● Rejected children

Back 51

excluded by peers as early as kindergarten. This impairs their biased information processing and heightens their hostility. The participate less in class, have more feelings of loneliness, and do poorly in school. The typically befriend other rejected children. They have few friends, and the ones they do have are low in mutual support and effective conflict resolution. They are at risk for being bullied. Rejected-aggressive children act as bullies.

Front 52

● Neglected

Back 52

They are usually well-adjusted. They don’t really engage in interaction very much and are considered shy by their classmates, but they are not less socially skilled than average children. When they want to, they can break away from their habits of playing by themselves so neglected status is usually temporary.

Front 53

outcomes of or impact peer acceptance has on the future psychological adjustment of a child

Back 53

○ Peer acceptance is a powerful predictor of current and later psychological adjustment. (p 616)
■ Peer rejection in middle childhood is strongly associated with poor school performance, absenteeism, dropping out, substance use, depression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency
■ School age children with peer-relationship problems are more likely to have experienced family stress due to low income, insensitive child rearing, and coercive discipline.
■ peer rejection, in turn, adds to the risk of maladjustment, beyond rejected children’s maladaptive behavior styles

Front 54

Difference between a clique and a crowd and what function a clique serves

Back 54

● Clique: small groups of about 5-7 friends who tend to resemble each other in family background, attitudes, values, and interests, often exclusive to new members (p. 620)
↳Cliques of boys and girls come together as dating interests increase, creating models for interaction between genders without having to be intimate (p.621)
● Crowd: several cliques with similar values form a larger, more loosely organized group; membership based on reputation and stereotype, grants an identity within the larger social structure of the school (p. 621)
↳Crowd affiliations linked to strengths in self-concepts, reflecting abilities and interests (p. 621)

Front 55

Dominance hierarchy

Back 55

a stable ordering of group members that predicts who will win when conflict arises.

- rough and tumble play may help establish dominance hierarchy
- observations of arguments, threats, and physical attacks between children reveal “a consistent lineup of winners and losers”
-children use this to pick rough and tumble play partners
-dominance relations among children function to limit aggression
-once dominance hierarchy is established hostility is rare

Front 56

Peer conformity

Back 56

- 12 through 18 years old conformity to peer pressure increases, then declines
- peer pressure is greater in adolescence than in childhood or early adulthood
- adolescents do not just blindly do what people ask
- “Peer conformity is a complex process that varies with the adolescents age, current situation, need for social approval, and culture.”
-adolescents feel the greatest pressure to conform to the most obvious aspects of peer culture such as dress, grooming, and participation in social activities
- Peer pressure to engage in pro-adult behavior (eg. cooperating with parents and getting good grades) were strong.
-many peers discourage antisocial behavior
-greatest concern of peer conformity is that adolescents will give in to the pressure of doing drugs and delinquent acts.
-Peers exert more influence on teenagers’ day-to-day personal choices such as dress and music and parents have more of an impact of basic life values and education plans
-Young people who feel competent and worthwhile and are good decision makers are less likely to conform with peers who engage in risky behavior
- authoritative child rearing is related to resistance to negative peer conformity while the other extreme parenting styles make them more susceptible to it

Front 57

Effects of television on children, children TV programs

Back 57

-By age 4 children realize that TV is symbolic.
● decline in reading ability & creative thinking
● rise in gender-stereotyped beliefs
● increase verbal and physical aggression
● drop in community participation
● COULD be good if used to enhance interest in world: strengthen cognitive, emotional, and social development
Good
● pro-social behavior
● literacy
Bad
● aggression
● ethnic and gender stereotypes
● consumerism
● family - dumb moms to dumb dads
● sexual content and profaning the sacred

Front 58

Average time American children spend watching television each week

Back 58

● American school-aged children watch 24 hours of TV each week.
● Varies with child, time increases as parents watch more TV. (eating in front of TV etc)

Front 59

Effects of television in relation to violence, ethnic and gender stereotyping, and prosocial behavior

Back 59

● Violence/Aggression= Hostile thoughts, actions, emotions are related television violence, sparks hostile thought and behavior, more willing to tolerate violence in others *Violence is not punished on TV and victims are not seen hurting or wounded
● Ethnic and Gender Stereotypes= * Hispanics and other minorities are depicted as lower class if shown at all, underrepresented. women appear less than men in main character roles.*Girls weaker and emotional compared to powerful, aggressive males
● Prosocial behavior is encouraged by TV that promotes it. Increase in helping, cooperating, comforting. However, TV also mixes prosocial and antisocial messages. Prosocial programs are helpful when they are free of violent content.
(p. 628-630)

Front 60

Effects of heavy home Internet use

Back 60

● Kids can become withdrawn with overuse (in either Internet communication or computer games)
● Can get into trouble if they don’t understand and protect the dangers (hackers, pornography, theft of personal info)
● Can have great educational use (associated with higher literacy)
● Poverty stricken families do not reap the benefits because they don’t own computers (p. 631)

Front 61

Benefits of small schools and classrooms

Back 61

●Smaller classes (13-17 students)= Teachers can teach instead of discipline (more individual attention) so student achievement and quality of class time is increased. Especially in grades kindergarten to 3rd, but also in adolescents.
●Smaller student body sizes (500-700 students) make more opportunities for kids to lead in extra curricular activities because less people to ensure clubs, activities, etc will function. Providing sense of competence, personal responsibility and challenge from extracurricular experiences. (p. 635)

Front 62

Children and transitions within the school system (including adjustment to kindergarten and transitions in adolescence)

Back 62

● Children with preschool experience score higher on school readiness tests.
● Prosocial behavior= Good experience in kindergarten= participation= high achievement
● With each school change, adolescent grades decline. Due to greater academic expectations and more impersonal teaching.
● Adolescents experience many problems in all areas of life contributing to some self-esteem drops. (Support from adults and friends helps).

Front 63

Effects of special class placing versus mainstreaming

Back 63

Kids self-esteem may drop due to competitive nature of schooling and a skewed perception of how well they are doing.
- Assignment to a college track in high school shows higher academic progress, whereas assignment to a vocational or general education track decelerates it. Students in low tracks exert less effort- classes are less stimulating.Lower track teachers are less likely to communicate with parents- parents are less likely to understand the tracking system and are unaware of their child’s low placement.

Front 64

Educational self-fulfilling prophecy

Back 64

Children may adopt teacher’s positive or negative views and start to live up to them.

Front 65

How the USA does in terms of cross-national academic achievement and why?

Back 65

● U.S. Students typically perform at the international average and sometimes below.
*This is because instruction is less challenging and focused than in other countries
*U.S. students report learning by memorization rather than relating info to previously acquired knowledge.

Front 66

Risks involved with adolescents who work more than 15 hours during high school

Back 66

About 50% of high school adolescents are employed.
-Associated with lower academic achievement, school attendance, and involvement in extra-curricular activities.
-Become distant towards parents
-Report higher substance abuse and alcoholism

Front 67

Outcomes for high school graduates who do not go on to college

Back 67

-1/3 of North American kids graduate from high school and do not plan for college
-Typically hold low income, low skill level jobs (And often want jobs mainly to spend the money they earn- aren’t interested in vocational learning or improving skills).
-Unlike European students, North American students do not have preparatory vocational schools they can enter in right out of high school.

Front 68

Differences between planner, ambivalent, acceptance of fate, and yes/no couples

Back 68

● Planner: Planned everything out prior to getting pregnant and then planned the pregnancy.
● Ambivalent: One day/hour/minute they want a baby, the next they don't.
● Acceptance-of-fate: "If we get pregnant, fine. If not, no big deal." AGREE to let whatever happen
● Yes/No: One parent wants to have a baby, the other doesn't

Front 69

marital satisfaction before vs. after baby

Back 69

○ Decreases after baby
○ Biggest decrease after 18 months.
○ Biggest decrease for men, and yes/no type of couple

Front 70

marriage stressors after the birth of a child

Back 70

- Division of household labor
- No Time Together
- Sexual Relationship
- Need for time alone
- Management of family money
- Ideas about how to raise children
- Relationship with in-laws

Front 71

Marital structure - members, roles, and responsibilities (i.e., marriage = a presidency)

Back 71

President: the Lord
1st Counselor: Husband
2nd Counselor: Wife
-Husband and wife have the same level of responsibility and same end goal, just different roles.
*Husband is the 1st counselor because he is the one responsible of presiding over the family when the Lord is not physically there

Front 72

Benefits of fathers who play with their children and who are involved with their children’s lives

Back 72

●Small group of men who were taking a significantly more active role in running their households and rearing their children. Father participation was related to (in mothers AND fathers):

• Higher self-esteem
• Less parenting stress
• Less depression
• Higher marital satisfaction
• Higher family cohesion
• Greater positive balance between social support and life stress

● IF DADS ARE MORE INVOLVED KIDS WILL BETTER:
-Maintain strong fulfilling relationships with peer groups
-social competence
-better academics
-higher self-esteem

Front 73

“The Family, A Proclamation To The World” - know the duties of a parent

Back 73

-Solemn responsibility to love and care for each other and for their children
-Parents have a sacred duty to rear their children in love and righteousness
-to provide for their physical and spiritual needs
-teach them to love and serve one another
-to observe the commandments of God
-to be law-abiding citizens wherever they live
Father: provide, preside, protect
Mother: nurture