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153 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
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-Energy Currency
-Soluble -hydrolysed to ADP and Pi to provide energy -made up of 3 phosphate groups and adenine base and ribose sugar -when it is hydrolysed it releases heat energy which may cause cell denature to prevent this remove phosphate groups |
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USES OF ATP
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-muscle contraction
-cell division -proteinsynthesis -to maintain body temperature -spindle formation and contraction -DNA replication -Nuclear membrane formation |
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IPMATC
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Interphase
-G1 cell carrying out its normal function which is growing and proteinsynthesis -S DNA replication -G2 same as G1 -Chromosomes are long and thin so they are invisible Prophase -homologous chromosome forms a shape call bivalent. Chiasma is the point where chromatids cross over -nuclear envolope breakdown Metaphase -they meet at the equator of the cell -formation of spindle Anaphase -Spindle contract which causes homologous to move to different poles of the cell Telophase -re form of nuclear envelope -constrict in the middle of the cell -cell starts to divide in two Cytokinesis -cytoplasm is divided in two |
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GLYCOLYSIS
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-Glucose move to cytoplasm by Facilitated Diffusion.
-Facilitated Diffusion uses protein channels. Its passive so no energy is requires. Down the concentration gradient. -Glucose is phosphorylated and uses 2 ATP to provide energy to convert Glucose to Pyruvate. -Hexose Diphosphate -2 NAD accepts hydrogen and becomes NADH -4 ADP accepts phosphate groups so 4 ATP is made. -2 3C Pyruvate is produced -2 net gain of ATP -anaerobic as oxygen is not required for this process |
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LINK REACTION
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-Pyruvate is decarboxylated so Co2 is released
-it binds with Co-A to produce Acetyl Co-A -2 NAD accepts Hydrogen and becomes NADH -aerobic -occurs in the matrix of mitochondria |
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KREBS CYCLE
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-2C Acetyl Co-A binds with oxaloacetate and produce 6C Citrate
-6C Citrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated so Co2 is produced and NAD accepts hydrogen and becomes NADH -5c molecule dehydrogenated and decarboxylated and ATP is produced by Substrate Level Phosphorylation -4c molecule is dehydrogenated FAD accepts hydrogen and becomes FADH -4C molecule is again dehydrogenated NAD - NADH -oxaloacetate is regenarated |
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OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
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-Coenzyme reduced is
-Oxidised (looses hydrogen atoms) when it comes in contact with -Cytochromes which are electron carriers -Hydrogen atoms spilts into electrons and protons -Electrons passes along the electron carriers and release energy -Protons pump into intermembrane space where they form electrochemical gradient. Protons pass along the channels -Channels consists of ATP synthase which speeds up the ATP Production -Protons then binds with electron and oxygen to produced water Chemiosmosis - movement of High concentration of protons to low concentration down the concentration gradient |
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DEHYDROGENASE + DECARBOXYLASE
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-speeds up the removal of Hydrogen in substrate for coenzymes
-speeds up the removal of Carbon Dioxide in substrate |
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LESS ATP IN THE END ?
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- energy lost as heat
- ATP used to transport pyruvate into mitochondria -some protons may have leaked thru membrane |
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CREATINE PHOSPHATE
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- regenerate ADP to ATP
- act as a substitute of ATP |
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METABOLIC PATHWAY
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-uses enzyme chain transport
-product of one reaction is used as a substrate |
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ALLOSTERIC + COMPETITIVE
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-away from the active site
-same shape as substrate |
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SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
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- Allows ATP synthesis without O2
-Phosphate group from Substrate |
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PURPOSE OF KREBS ?
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- breakdown of Acetyl to Co2
- more ATP synthesis - Removal of hydrogens in substrate for coenzymes |
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IMPORTANCE OF KREBS ?
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- Citrate glycolysis
- ATP 3 - Coenzymes enzymes |
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ELECTRONS ?
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- highest potential energy source which is used in oxidative phophorylation
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START END OF GLYCOLYSIS AND LINK ?
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CHEMIOSMOSIS
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- movement of high concentration of protons to low concentration down the concentration gradient
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ENZYME IN ECT ?
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NADH and FADH
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-
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PROTEINS and FATS
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MOTOCHONDRIA STRUCTURE
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LACTIC FERMENTATION
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YEAST FERMENTATION
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RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
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RESPIROMETER
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LONG TERM
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SHORT TERM
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NITRIC ACID
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-
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SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRE
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-
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BREATHING RATE
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-
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CARBOHYDRATE LOADING
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-
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RHEPO
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-
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BLOOD DOPING
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STEROID
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WHY OWN BLOOD ?
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DISADVANTAGE OF ILLEGAL ?
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TRANSCRIPTION
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TRANSLATION
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EXON
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DNA and RNA
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TRIPLET SEQUENCE
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-
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rRNA
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ENZYME and MYOGLOBIN
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SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
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TELOMERES
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DAMAGE and REPAIR DNA
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APOPTOSIS
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-
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PESO
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-o2 carried by Hb
-in lungs Hb has high affinity of O2 -O2 bind with iron atom in haem -in tissue low pO2 is low -aerobic -O2 dissociates from haem -CO2 increase -Co2 react with enzyme -CARBONIC ANHYDRASE -catalyse production hydrogen ioms and carbonate -bind with Hb - HHb -HAEMOGLOBINIC ACID |
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HAEMOGLOBIN
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-has affinity of O2 in high pp
-release O2 in low pp |
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INCREASE CO2 ?
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-curve move to right
-HB affinity of o2 is low -need to be exposed in high pp to load tension |
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SHAPE OF DISSOCIATION
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-S shape
-high pO2 in lungs -HB release O2 in low pO2 -small change in pO2 cause large change in % saturation |
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BOHR SHIFT IN TISSUE
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-more CO2 release as tissue become active
-move to right -more O2 released |
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MYOGLOBIN
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-oxygen store in muscle
-release o2 when po2 is below 1 kPa -allow aerobic to continue |
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OXYGEN DEBT
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-amount of 02 required by body to recovery after vigorous exercise
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EPOC
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-total oxygen consumed after exercise - total oxygen consumed resting level
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REASON FOR EPOC
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-reoxidise myoglobin + haemoglobin
-replace ATP + creatine phosphate -oxidise lactate to pyruvate |
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CARDIAC MUSCLE (invol)
SMOOTH MUSCLE (invol) SKELETAL MUSCLE (volun) |
-myogenic
-only in heart -contract , stim by AUTONOMIC -artery wall -SOMATIC -attach to skeleton |
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DIAGRAM of SACROMERE
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M line - MYOSIN
Z line - ACTIN I Band - ACTIN H ZONE - MYOSIN A BAND - All |
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ACTIN and MYOSIN
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SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
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-sarcoplasmic reticulum
-troponin -tropomyosin -atp hydrolyse to return myosin original position |
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MUSCLE FIBRE
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POWERSTROKE
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NO MORE CREATINE
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- o2 from oxyhaemoglobin
-contraction cont. using ATP from anaerobic -lactate build -myosin head still attach |
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MYOGLOBIN
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-higher affinity of o2
-oxymyoglobin get o2 from oxyhb -release o2 when po2 is low in tissue during vigorous exercise |
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UTERUS , FALLOPIAN , OVARY , MAMMARY GLAND
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SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES , EPIDIDYMIS , SPERM DUCT , SCROTUM , VESICLE ,
VAS DEFERENS |
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SEX ORGANS ?
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-ENDOCRINE
-produce hormones and release intk blood streams |
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FOLLICLE AND EGG CELL
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FOLLICLE
-specialised -produce oestrogen EGG -oocyte -found in follicle |
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GAMETOGENESIS
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-gamete production
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OOGENESIS
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-epithelial cell
-diploid oogania -grow -differentiate -at prophase 1 -produce primary oocyte (46) -puberty primary oocyte goes thru metaphase 2 -becomes secondary oocyte -ovulation -follicle burst and release 2ndary oocyte (fert and mens) -2ndary oocyte (haploid) |
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SPERMATOGENESIS
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-epithelial cell
-diploid spermatogenia -grow and multiply -produce primary spermatocytes (46) -meiosis 1 -produce 2ndary spermatocytes (23) -meiosis 2 -produce spermatids -differentiate to spermatozoa |
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SPERM DIAGRAM
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GRAFIAAN FOLLICLE DIAGRAM
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GnRH - Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone
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-release by HYPOTHALAMUS
-stim pituitary gland to prod LH and FSH |
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FSH - Follicle Stimulating Hormone
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-release by anterior pituitary
-bind to follicle and stim oestrogen production |
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LH - Luteinizing Hormone
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-release by anterior pituitary
-stim grafiaan follicle to release to release 2nd oocyte -stim development of corpus luteum |
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PROGESTERONE
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-release by corpus luteum
-maintain endometrium in early pregnancy -stops prolactin and uterine wall contraction PERIOD -endo gets thicker -increase blood supply |
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HCG
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-release by chorion
-stimulate corpus luteum to produce progesterone |
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OESTROGEN
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-release by mature follicle
-thickening of endo -increase sensitivity to oxytocin |
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TESTOSTERONE
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-release by testis
-stimulate sperm production -affects sertoli cells |
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OXYTOCIN
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-stim uterus contraction
-positive feedback AFTER -stim milk gland |
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PROLACTIN
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-stim milk production
-uterine contraction |
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HPL - Human Placental Lactogen
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- stim breast dev
- control maternal blood sugar - pro and oes |
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MENSTRUATION
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-less oes
-ling of endo shred -corpus luteum degenerate |
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FERTILISATION
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-acrosome
-hydrolytic enzyme -zona pellucida -corona radiata -sperm reach suface -sperm enters inside -membrane hardens -sperm nucleus fuse with oocytes nucleus |
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ZYGOTE
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-zygote mitosis
-form blastocyt -move to uterus -and stim uterine lining to grow around it -outer layer form TROPHOBLAST -chorion develops in placenta -inner cell become EMBRYO |
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MOTHER TO FOETUS
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-oxygen
-glucose -heroin -rubella -carbon monoxide |
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FOETUS TO MOTHER
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-co2
-urea |
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PLANCENTA STRUCTURE
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--exchange of stuff
-chorionic villi ( 1 cell thick ) -large surface area -many capillaries -concentration gra is steep |
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-----> UMBILICAL ARTERY
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-thicker wall
-no valves -smaller lumen |
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BIRTH CONTROL PILL
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-comb of oestrogen and progesterone
-stops ovulation ●increase thrombosis and breast ●increase load on society ●increase of transmitting |
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IMPLANT
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-hormones that lasts 3 years
●risk of transmitting STD ●increase thrombosis and breast |
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MORNING AFTER PILL
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-steroid
-prevent implantation of embryo ●abdomen pain ●sickness ●unethical - embryo already formed ●risk of transmitting |
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IUD (Intra Uterine Disease)
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-stops implantation of embryo
●uterine pain ●excess bleeding ●UNETHICAL ; embryo already formed ●risk of transmitting |
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CONDOM
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-barrier
-prevent sperm meeting egg ●unacceptable in some religion ●reduce risk of transmitting disease |
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NATURAL RHYTHM
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-intercourse avoid at ovulation
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STERILISATION
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-Vasectomy
-sperm duct is cut and tied Tubal Ligation -fallopian tube is cut and tied ●operations are not easily reversed |
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MALE INFERTILE
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-low sperm
-block sperm duct -abnormal sperm formation -produce antibodies that attack their own sperm |
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FEMALE INFERTILE
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-block fallopian tube
-abnormal uterus lining -antibodies attack sperm |
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ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
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IUI
-inject semen near fallopian tube ICI -inject sperm near cervix |
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INVITRO FERTILISATION
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GIFT
-sperm and oocyte placed into fallopian tube ; natural fertilisation ZIFT -formed zygote place in fallopian tube ICSI -inject spem into oocyte -natural fertilisation |
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SPERM BANK
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-men donate sperm to couples who cant make a baby.
-sperm stored in sperm bank |
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SPERM BANK PROCEDURE
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sperm mix w/ chemical to prevent damage when freezing
sperm placed in straw and labelled frozen in nitrogen |
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SCREEN SEMEN ?
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-infectious disease
-volume of semen -genetic |
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COLLECT SPERM FOR FUTURE ?
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-has cancer
-before surgery -before chemoteraphy |
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SPERM DONOR DECREASE
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-concern about financial responsibilities
-concern about being contacted by child |
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SEMEN
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HCG in PREGNANCY
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MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
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OXYGEN and GLUCOSE
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PLANTS
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PLANT STRUCTURE
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RESPIRATION + PHOTOSYNTHESIS RELATION
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LIGHT DEPENDANT STAGE
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LIGHT INDEPENDENT STAGE
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WHERE IS DEPENDENT
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WHERE IS INDEPENDENT
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RUBISCO
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NITROGEN CYCLE
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TROPHIC LEVEL
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TROPHIC LEVEL EQAUTION
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RABBITS (IMPALA)
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CARBON CYCLE
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EXTENSIVE FARMING
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INTENSIVE FARMING
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ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE
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MEAN IF BIODIVERSITY REDUCED
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HUMAN POPULATION
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EXPONENTIAL RISE
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MEDICAL ADVANCES
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AGRICULTURE
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NITRIFYING BACTERIA
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PURIFYING BACTERIA
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GP to ENZYME
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Membrane Stack
Matrix Inner Membrane |
- increase s.a and absorb light
-has enzymes RUBISCO - cholorophyll and cytochrome |
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LECAPST
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Light energy absrob by electrons in chlorophyll and they gain high energy
Electrons pass along in Cytochromes Atp and reduced NADP formed Photophosphorylation Some light use split water;photolysis To provide source of Hydrogen and electrons Oxygen given off as waste |
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Changes in Slow Twitch (red) Muscle Fibre during exercice?
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Increase mito and myoglobin
increase enzyme in krebs increase size of muscle fibre |
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How Fast Twitch (White) Fibres respire during strenuous exercise?
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Higher VO2 max
anaerobic respiration lactate Creatine phosphate regenerate ADP |
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How body builders increase development of skeletal muscle ?
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increase protein intake ; source of specific amini acids
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How co2 and hydrogen ions enter red blood cell ?
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Co2 react with anhydrase to form carbolonic acid
Hydrogen Ions form diffuse thru phospholipid bilayer |
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role of stretch receptors in lungs ?
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allow expiration to occur
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why control concentration of hydrogen ions ?
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Hydrogen ions lower pH of blood
Denature of enzymes |
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Why difference of age distributions in UK and Philippines ?
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Pinas
-higher birth rate -less contraception -high infant mortality rate -less doctors -less hospital and clinics -poor overcrowding -lack of vaccines and medicines |
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wala
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Ageing affects infertility ?
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women most fertile at 20
men most fertile between 20-30 women lose fertility at 50 |
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Difference bet men and women infertility at age 40
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male matures layer
sperm production continuous in men menopause ; less oestrogen |
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old women tend to get twins?
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hormones lose balance
may release 2 oocytes per cycle |
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Identical - zygote split in two
Non identical - from seperate zygote Why study of comparing useful ? |
Identical twins are genetically identical
can indicate environmental effect |
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pigments found in plants
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chlorophyll a and b
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diff between photosystem 1 and 2 ?
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Photosystem 1 not invokved in photolysis
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Calvin Cycle
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-occurs in stroma
-controlled by series of enzyme reactions -Co2 fixed by RuBP -with presence of Rubisco -6c molecule split into 3GP -TP produced using ATP -reduced using h from NADP -most TP regenerate RuBP -some TP used as glucose |
