Human Behaviour - Learning And Conditioning

Front 1

1) What is learning?

2) (i) What is enduring change?

(ii) What is the change of behaviour not due to?

3) (i) What is response?

(ii) Because it focuses on behaviour, it forms the basis on what theory of psychology?

4) (i) What is prior experience?

(ii) What does learning reflect on?

Back 1

1) Any enduring change in the way an organism responds to a stimulus from the environment (object or event) based on its prior experience.

2) (i)Relatively lasting but not permanent.

(ii) ▪The change in behaviour is not due to chance; it has occurred for a reason (i.e. prior experience).

▪The change in behaviour is not fixed; with new experiences the behaviour can change again.

3) (i) The focus is on observable behaviours.

(ii) Behaviourism: Psychology should be the scientific study of behaviour.

4) (i) Associations made in the past seen to be adaptive guide future behaviour.

(ii) Learning reflects our predictions of what we consider to be an adaptive response based on behaviours that promoted our survival in the past.

Front 2

Learning theories have three common assumptions. What are they?

Back 2

1.Experience most significantly shapes our behaviour

▪Behaviourism and learning theories argue that most of our behaviours are learned (‘nurture’) rather than being innate (‘nature’)

2.Learning is adaptive

▪Behaviours that enhance our chances of survival will be reproduced

3.Patterns (or laws) that reflect how we learn can be uncovered through systematic experimentation

▪Behaviourism sees science to be the only appropriate method of inquiry into human behaviour

Front 3

1) What are the three theories of learning?

2) What do they all have in common or emphasises?

Back 3

1) (i) Classical conditioning

(ii) Operant conditioning

(iii) Social-cognitive learning

2) An emphasis on ‘associations’

Front 4

1) What is Classical Conditioning?

2) What are the key elements in Classical Conditioning? (3)

Back 4

1) When a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity of an unconditioned stimulus after repeated pairings, to elicit a conditioned reflexive response.

-It is also called ‘respondent conditioning’ because the organism is responding to a stimulus.

2) (i) Perviously Neutral Stimulus.

(ii) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

(iii) Conditioned Reflexive Response

Front 5

Classical Conditioning

Perviously Neutral Stimulus

Back 5

(i) Any stimulus that is not able to naturally elicit a reflex.

(ii) After repeated pairings (i.e. associations) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), it becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS).

E.g. Bell

Front 6

Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus

Back 6

Any stimulus that is naturally able to elicit a reflex without prior learning.

E.g. Food

Front 7

Classical Conditioning

Conditioned Reflexive Response

Back 7

(i) The behavioural response is always an automatic reflex.

(ii) The response is referred to as either the conditioned response (CR) or the unconditioned response (UCR) depending on the stimulus that elicited it

•UCR: Elicited by UCS

•CR: Elicited by CS

(iii) The CR and UCR are the same thing.

E.g. Salvation

Front 8

Pavlov's model of classical conditioning

Back 8

Front 9

Classical Conditioning

More about Conditioned Response

1) Automatic reflexes have evolved. Why?

2) But, Conditioned Responses are automatic reflexes elicited by what?

Back 9

1) Because they were adaptive.

2) 'Unnatural' Stimuli.

E.g. 1: Conditioned taste aversions: A learned aversion to a taste associated with an unpleasant feeling.

UCS (Chemotherapy)-->UCR (Nausea)

NS (Food) + UCS (Chemotherapy)-->UCR (Nausea)

CS (Previously neutral food)-->CR (Nausea)

E.g. 2: Conditioned emotional responses: Neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes an emotional response (e.g. Little Albert’s fear of rats).

UCS (Loud noise) --> UCR (Fear)

NS (Rat) + UCS (Loud noise)--->UCR (Fear)

CS (Previously neutral rat) ---> CR (Fear)

Front 10

1) What is Stimulus Generalisation?

2) Give an example.

3) What law does it reflect on?

4) What is Stimulus Discrimination?

5) Give an example.

Back 10

1) When an organism learns to respond with a similar response to stimuli that resembles the CS.

2) E.g. Little Albert’s fear of rats (CS) generalised to other stimuli similar to rats such as a rabbits, dogs, fur coats etc.

3) It reflects the law of similarity: Objects that resemble each other are likely to become associated

4) When an organism learns not to respond with a similar response to stimuli that resembles the CS.

5) The organism responds to a smaller, restricted range of stimuli because it can discriminate between the CS and other similar objects.

Front 11

1) What is Extinction?

2) Give an example.

3) What is extinction not? What is it actually doing?

4) Extinction is the learned inhibition of what? What does it reflect?

5) Therefore, what can 'extinct' behaviour do?

6) What is Spontaneous Recovery?

Back 11

1) When the conditioned response (CR) weakens because the conditioned stimulus (CS) is no longer repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

2) E.g. A dog will stop salivating if the bell is no longer paired with the food.

3) Extinction is not an unlearning of the CR, it is a weakening of it.

4) Learned inhibition of responding, reflecting adaptation and experience and guiding future behaviour.

5) ‘Extinct’ behaviours can spontaneously recover in response to a CS.

6) The re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response.

Front 12

What is becoming associated in classical conditioning?

1) Is it the bell and food (S-S) or the bell and salivation (S-R)?

Back 12

It is most likely that organisms are learning an association between the CS and UCS because the CS signals the impending presentation of the UCS, but it could be both.

Front 13

What is the strength of the association between the CS and UCS influenced by? (3)

Back 13

1. The interstimulus interval

2. An individual’s learning history

3. An evolutionary preparedness to learn

Front 14

The interstimulus interval

1) What is it? What does it reflect on?

2) What is the law of contiguity?

3) For some stimulus the interstimulus needs to be longer to optimise the association. True or False. Give an example.

Back 14

1) Generally … the shorter the time lag between the CS and UCS, the stronger the association is likely to be. Reflects on the law of contiguity.

2) Objects that occur close together in time are likely to become associated.

3) True. E.g. Conditioned taste aversions

Front 15

An individual’s learning history

1) What happens if a CR is extinguished?

2) What happens once you learn a CR?

3) What is 'Blocking' in terms of conditioning?

4) What happens after an organism is exposed to the CS prior to its association with the UCS?

5) What is Latent Inhibition?

Back 15

1) If a CR has been extinguished, it is quicker to learn it a second time and more difficult to extinguish it a second time.

2) If one CR has been learned, it is difficult to learn a second CR; the first CR ‘blocks’ learning of the second.

3) The failure of a stimulus to elicit a CR when it is combined with another stimulus that already elicits the CR.

4) Then learning the association between the CS and UCS takes longer.

5) The initial exposure to a neutral stimulus without an UCS slows the process of learning the CS-UCS association and developing a CR.

Front 16

An evolutionary preparedness to learn

1) What is it? Provide an example.

Back 16

1) We are biologically ‘wired’ to be more ready to learn some associations than others.

E.g. We are more likely to develop a phobia of spiders than a phobia of flowers

Front 17

1) What is Operant Conditioning?

2) Why is it also called Instrumental Conditioning?

3) Why is it called Operant Conditioning?

4) What law does it reflect on? and what is it?

Back 17

1) Also called 'Instrumental Conditioning'. When an organism learns an association between a behaviour and its consequences.

2) Because the organism’s behaviour is instrumental to the process of learning.

3) Because the organism learns to operate on the environment to produce a consequence.

4) Law of Effect: behaviours are likely to reproduce/recur if they have an effect on the environment and the organism.

Front 18

Note....

1) In classical conditioning, stimulus from the ------------ precedes the ---------.

2) In operant conditioning, the ------------precedes a response from the ------------.

Back 18

1) Environment and Behaviour.

▪We learn that a stimulus predicts an event and we respond automatically with a behavioural reflex.

2) Behaviour and Environment.

▪We learn that a behaviour predicts a consequence (reward or punishment) and we voluntarily modify our behaviour

Front 19

1) What are the consequences of behaviour?

(2) and what do they do?

Back 19

1) (i) Reinforcement

▪A stimulus in the environment that occurs after a behaviour and increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again in the future.

(ii) Punishment

▪A stimulus in the environment that occurs after a behaviour and decreases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again in the future.

Front 20

Reinforcement

1) What are the two types of Reinforcement?

2) What do they do?

3) Provide an example for each.

Back 20

▪Positive reinforcement: The presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour makes the behaviour more likely to occur again in the future.

▪E.g. Getting high praise from peers for passing your exam.

▪Negative reinforcement: The removal of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour makes the behaviour more likely to occur again in the future.

▪E.g. Taking a Panadol to remove a headache (escape learning)

▪E.g. Taking a Panadol before an expected headache starts (avoidance learning)

Front 21

Punishment

1) What are the two types of Punishment?

2) What do they do?

3) Provide an example for each.

Back 21

▪Positive punishment: The presentation of an aversive stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future.

▪E.g. Getting a smack for putting mud in your mouth.

▪Negative punishment: The removal of pleasant stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future.

▪E.g. The removal of TV privileges for a month for sneaking out of the house.

Front 22

Fill in the Blanks

Back 22

Front 23

What are some reasons why punishments don't always work?

(6)

Back 23

1) It may not always be clear to the learner which of their behaviours is being punished.

2) The learner may come to fear and then avoid the punisher instead of reducing the undesirable behaviour.

3) Punishment does not eliminate other co-existing rewards for the same or even a competing behaviour.

4) The punishment may occur too long after the undesirable behaviour.

5) The punishment may only be delivered when in a bad mood rather than every time an undesirable behaviour occurs.

6) The type of punishment that is given may become a model for the learner.

Front 24

Examples for the previous reasons.

Back 24

1) A dog may be getting punished for not coming on the first call but thinks they’re getting punished for coming, so the next time it takes them longer to come when called making the punishment ineffective.

2) This is because they have made an association between the punisher and punishment (e.g. angry father) instead of between the undesirable behaviour and the punishment (e.g. sneaking out and anger).

3) (i) The class clown may get punished by the teacher but is rewarded by peers, making punishment ineffective.

(ii) Punishing a person for stealing can reward them for lying.

4) Making it difficult for the learner to make an association.

5) Making punishment irregular and difficult to predict.

6) An aggressive parent may cause children to become aggressive.

Front 25

1) What is Extinction in terms of Operant Conditioning?

Back 25

- Occurs if enough trials pass in which the operant is not followed by the consequence previously associated with it.

- As the association is not unlearned (just weakened), the behaviour can spontaneously recover upon presentation of the original consequence.

Front 26

1) What are the two main Schedules of reinforcement (and punishment)?

Back 26

1) Continuous reinforcement schedules.

2) Intermittent/partial reinforcement schedules.

Front 27

Continuous reinforcement schedules

1) What is it?

2) When is it most effective?

3) Is it relatively easy or hard to extinguish the association?

Back 27

1) A reinforcer is obtained after every response.

2) Effective during acquisition of an association between a behaviour and its consequences because it makes the connection clear and predictable.

3) Relatively easy.

Front 28

Intermittent/partial reinforcement schedules

1) What is it?

2) When is it most effective?

3) Is it relatively easy or hard to extinguish the association?

Back 28

1) A reinforcer is not obtained after every response.

2) For maintaining a learned behaviour (i.e. after the association is acquired).

3) Relatively difficult.

Front 29

What are the two types of intermittent/partial reinforcement schedules?

Back 29

1) Ratio Schedules

2) Interval Schedules

Front 30

Ratio Schedules

1) What is it?

2) What are the two types of ratio? What are they? Provide example where needed.

Back 30

1) Reinforcement depends on the number of responses emitted.

2) ▪Fixed ratio (FR): Reinforced every nth response.

▪E.g. A FR-10 schedule means that a person will only get paid (reinforcer) every 10th scarf woven.

▪Variable ratio (VR): On average, reinforced after every nth response.

Front 31

Interval Schedules

1) What is it?

2) What are the two types of ratio? What are they? Provide examples.

Back 31

1) Reinforcement depends on the time elapsed.

2) ▪Fixed interval (FI): Reinforced after specific time period has elapsed.

▪E.g. A FI-10 means that a reward is delivered after 10 minutes regardless of the number of behaviours before the 10 minute has elapsed

▪Variable interval (VI): Reinforced after an average time period has elapsed.

▪E.g. A VI-5 means that you may be rewarded after 1 minute, 4 minutes, 7 minutes and 9 minutes, but on average you were rewarded after 5 minutes.

Front 32

How are some complex behaviour learned through Operant Conditioning? (2) What are they?

Back 32

1) Shaping: Progressive modification of a specific behaviour to produce a new response by reinforcing successive approximations to the desired response.

2) Chaining: Putting together a sequence of existing responses in a novel order.

Front 33

Summary of Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning.

Back 33

Front 34

1) Compared to Classical and Operant conditioning what does Social-Cognitive learning do differently?

2) What is the Social- Cognitive theory?

Back 34

1) Classical and operant conditioning focuses on behaviour.But social-cognitive theory incorporates a focus on cognition (thoughts) and social context.

2) Also known as ‘cognitive-behavioral theory’. It argues that our cognitive expectations about the consequences of our behaviour influences whether the behaviour will occur again or not.

1. Locus of control

2. Learned helplessness

Front 35

1) What is Locus of control?

2) Example. Internal and External.

Back 35

1) General expectation of whether we are in control of our own lives.

2) Internal: Life is determined by the choices I make; I am the master of my own fate.

External: Life is determined by forces outside of my control.

Front 36

1) What is Learned Helplessness?

2) What does this lead to?

3) What is an experiment that tested this? What did they learn?

4) Learned helplessness and pessimistic explanatory style underpins what?

5) What do pessimists believe about bad events?

Back 36

1) The expectation that one cannot escape aversive events.

2) This expectation/belief leads to motivational and learning deficits.

▪E.g. Reduces the motivation to solve problems, interferes with the ability to learn from experience, and produces depression.

3) Seligman’s (1975) experiment. At first, dogs could not escape electric shocks. Later when they could escape them, they did not try.

4) Depression.

5) ▪Will last a long time (stable)

▪Will undermine everything they do (global)

▪Are their own fault (internal)

Front 37

Social Learning

1) How do we learn associations?

2) When does Observational Learning occur?

3) What is Modelling? What is an experiment that explains this? What happened?

4) Whether we imitate or model the behaviour of another person depends on: (3)

Back 37

1) From other people.

2) When we learn by observing the behaviour of others.

3) Is when we reproduce the behaviours of others. Bandura’s (1967) ‘Bobo doll’ experiment.

▪Group 1 watched a video of an adult acting aggressively toward BoBo.

▪Group 2 watched a video of the adult acting in a subdued manner toward Bobo.

▪Group 3 saw no video.

▪Children in Group 1 acted most aggressively toward the doll when they were placed in a room and given the opportunity to play with the doll.

4) ▪Their level of prestige.

▪Their likeability and attractiveness.

▪Whether they were rewarded or punished for their behaviour (aka ‘vicarious conditioning’).