Human A&p

Front 1

Define digestion

Back 1

the breaking down of large food molecules into small food molecules that can be absorbed by our cells

Front 2

General anatomy of digestive tract

Back 2

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small int, large int, rectum

Front 3

Two main groups within DS

Back 3

GI tract and accesory organs

Front 4

Accesory structures of the DS

Back 4

liver, pancreas, galbladder, glands

Front 5

4 layers/tunics of GI tract

Back 5

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa

Front 6

what are the 3 layers of the mucosa

Back 6

1.epithelium,
2.lamina propria,
3.muscularis mucosae.

Front 7

function of mucosa

Back 7

protection, absorption, contact with food

Front 8

function of submucosa

Back 8

binds mucosa to muscularis, submucosal plexus(nerves)

Front 9

what are the 2 layers of the muscularis?

Back 9

1.circular
2. longitudinal muscle layer

Front 10

function of muscularis

Back 10

controls motility/movement, myenteric plexus(nerves)

Front 11

what are the 2 layers of the serosa?

Back 11

1.aereolar CT,
2.epithelium (simple sq)

Front 12

function of serosa

Back 12

protection: peritoneum

Front 13

what types of epithelium line the digestive tract

Back 13

stratified squamos and simple columnar

Front 14

function of lamina propria

Back 14

supports epithelial cells, MALT

Front 15

location of lamina propria

Back 15

mucosa

Front 16

function of muscularis mucosa

Back 16

creates folds of mucosa

Front 17

location of muscularis mucosa

Back 17

mucosa

Front 18

location of myenteric plexus

Back 18

muscularis

Front 19

function of myenteric plexus

Back 19

network of nerves, controls movement

Front 20

define peritoneum

Back 20

serous membrane that lines abdomino-pelvic cavities

Front 21

Coronary ligament connects

Back 21

liver to diaphragm

Front 22

Falciform ligament connects

Back 22

liver to anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm

Front 23

Lesser omentum suspends

Back 23

stomach and duodenum from liver

Front 24

Mesentery wraps around

Back 24

small intestine

Front 25

Mesocolon binds

Back 25

transverse colon to sigmoid colon in large intestine

Front 26

Greater omentum surrounds

Back 26

transvers colon and stomach

Front 27

Name the 8 functions of the DS

Back 27

1. Ingestion
2. Secretion
3. Mixing & Propulsion
4. Digestion
5. Absorption
6. Packaging & Defecation of Waste
7. Immune Function
8. Sensory

Front 28

What is mechanical digestion?

Back 28

-the physical breakdown of food with no breaking of chemical bonds.
-chewing, churning in stomach.
-increases surface area

Front 29

What is chemical digestion?

Back 29

-Breaking of chemical bonds
-catabolic reaction by enzymes
-hydrolytic

Front 30

What happens to proteins during chemical digestion?

Back 30

turn into amino acids

Front 31

What happens to starch/carbs during chemical digestion?

Back 31

turn into glucose/simple sugars

Front 32

What happens to lipids during chemical digestion?

Back 32

turn into fatty acids and glycerol

Front 33

What happens to nucleic acids during chemical digestion?

Back 33

turn into nucleotides

Front 34

Lips are made of:

Back 34

mucous membrane internal surface made of nonkeratinized sq.ep.

Front 35

What is vermillion?

Back 35

transitional surface from skin to mucous membrane

Front 36

What is labial frenulum?

Back 36

where the lips attach to the gums

Front 37

What is a vestibule?

Back 37

the space between the cheeks, teeth, and gums

Front 38

What is a lingual tonsil?

Back 38

at base of tongue

Front 39

What is the function of the uvula?

Back 39

-speech
-protects nasopharynx

Front 40

What are tonsils and how many are there?

Back 40

-Made of lymphatic tissue
-5 regions

Front 41

What is the median septum?

Back 41

divides tongue down middle

Front 42

What does the tongue attach to?

Back 42

Anterior: lingual frenulum
Posterior: hyoid bone

Front 43

What do the extrinsic muscles of the tongue do?

Back 43

Move tongue from side to side and in and out

Front 44

What do the intrinsic muscles of the tongue do?

Back 44

change shape and size of tongue

Front 45

What are papillae in the mouth?

Back 45

-small bumps on the dorsal and lateral sides of the tongue
-projections of lamina propria
-ep.tissue

Front 46

What are the 3 types of papillae on the tongue?

Back 46

1. filiform
2. fungiform
3.vallate

Front 47

What and where is filiform papillae?

Back 47

-anterior 2/3 of tongue
- not tastebuds

Front 48

What and where is fungiform papillae?

Back 48

-throughout surface of tongue
-red dots
-tastebuds

Front 49

What and where are vallate papillae?

Back 49

-base of tongue
-inverted V
-tastebuds

Front 50

What does the periodontal ligament do?

Back 50

-lines sockets of tooth
-shock absorber
-fibrous CT

Front 51

What is dentin made out of?

Back 51

calcified CT

Front 52

What is the dentition of adults?

Back 52

2I 1C 2PM 3M (4)= 32

Front 53

What is the dentition of deciduous teeth?

Back 53

2I 1C 2M (4)= 20

Front 54

What is in saliva?

Back 54

-99.5% H20
-Salts
-salivary amylase (breaks down carbs in mouth)
-lingual lypase (breaks down fats in stomach)
-lysozyme
-immunoglobulin A

Front 55

What is the function of saliva?

Back 55

-moistens food
-protects from microbes
-begins carbo-chemical digestion
-mixes enzymes with food
-cleaning

Front 56

Where are the buccal glands?

Back 56

in the mucous membrane of epithelial cells in the mouth

Front 57

Where are the parotid glands and where does it empty?

Back 57

between the skin and muscle of the cheek in front of the ear
-empty thru parotid duct near 2nd maxillary molar

Front 58

Where is the submandibular gland and where does it empty?

Back 58

it is inferior to the sublingual gland next to the mandible
-empty thru the submandibular duct under the tongue base

Front 59

Where is the subligual gland and where does it empty?

Back 59

it is inferior to the tongue above the submandibular gland
-empty thru the sublingual duct at the lateral base of the tongue

Front 60

Name the 3 stages of deglutition

Back 60

1.voluntary stage
2.pharyngeal stage
3.esophageal stage

Front 61

Describe the voluntary stage of deglutition

Back 61

-deciding to swallow
-bolus mixes with saliva and mucus
-out of mouth into pharynx

Front 62

Describe the pharyngeal stage of deglutition

Back 62

-close off nasopharynx and respiratory passages from oropharynx
-breathing stops
-thru pharynx to esophagus

Front 63

Describe the esophageal stage of deglutition

Back 63

-bolus enters esophagus
-circular muscles contract behind bolus
-longitudinal muscles contract in front of bolus

Front 64

Describe the esophagus

Back 64

-10 in, long
-collapsed when relaxed
-muscular
-in mediastinum
-posterior to trachea

Front 65

What is the esophageal hiatus?

Back 65

the hole in the diaphragm where the esophagus passes thru

Front 66

Describe the transition of the muscularis thru the esophagus

Back 66

-first 1/3 skeletal muscle
-second 1/3 skel and sm muscle
-third 1/3 sm muscle

Front 67

What is the upper esophageal sphincter?

Back 67

muscle surrounding the opening of the esophagus, relaxed during swallowing

Front 68

What is the lower esophageal sphincter?

Back 68

muscle surrounding the lower opening of the esophagus that relaxes during the esophageal stage.
-allows food into stomach

Front 69

What are the 4 main regions of the stomach?

Back 69

1.Cardia
2.Fundus
3.Body
4.Pylorus

Front 70

What two structures are in the pylorus?

Back 70

1.Pyloric antrum
2.Pyloric canal

Front 71

What does the pyloric sphincter do?

Back 71

moves food into the small intestine

Front 72

What is the rugae of mucosa and what does it do?

Back 72

-folds/wrinkles of the mucosa
-increases capacity of stomach to hold food

Front 73

What are the 5 layers of cells in the mucosa of the stomach?

Back 73

1.surface mucus cells
2.mucus neck cells
3.parietal cells
4.chief cells
5.G cells

Front 74

What 4 layers of cells are in the gastric pits of the mucosa of the stomach?

Back 74

1.mucus neck cells
2.parietal cells
3.chief cells
4.G cells

Front 75

What do mucus neck cells secrete?

Back 75

mucus to protect from acid

Front 76

What do parietal cells secrete?

Back 76

HCL and intrinsic factor which absorbs Vit B12

Front 77

What do chief cells secrete?

Back 77

pepsinogen and gastric lipase

Front 78

What do G cells secrete and what are they also called?

Back 78

-secrete gastrin
-G cells also called enteroendocrine cells

Front 79

What are the 3 regions of the pancreas?

Back 79

1.head
2.body
3.tail

Front 80

Where is the pancreatic duct?

Back 80

largest duct throughout the pancreas

Front 81

Where is the accesory duct?

Back 81

branches off the pancreatic duct

Front 82

Where is the common bile duct?

Back 82

joins with the pancreatic duct

Front 83

What does the hepatopancreatic ampulla do?

Back 83

mixes bile and pancreatic juices

Front 84

What does the major duodenal papilla do?

Back 84

moves the contents of the hepatopancreatic ampulla into the sm. int.

Front 85

What is the function of the sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla aka the sphincter of oddi?

Back 85

when relaxed, bile and pancreatic juices can enter the small intestine

Front 86

Is the pancreas mostly exocrine or endocrine?

Back 86

exocrine

Front 87

What does pancreatic juices consist of?

Back 87

-water
-salts
-sodium bicarbonate (buffer against stomach acids)
-digestive enzymes

Front 88

What is acini?

Back 88

make up the exocrine cells of the pancreas and surround the ducts

Front 89

What are the pancreatic islets made of and what do they make?

Back 89

-made of endocrine cells
-makes: insulin, glucogen, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide (all proteins)

Front 90

What are 2 special facts about the liver?

Back 90

It is the heaviest gland and second largest organ

Front 91

Where does the cystic duct enter from?

Back 91

the gallbladder

Front 92

What makes up the portal triad in the liver?

Back 92

-branch of the hepatic portal vein
-branch of the hepatic artery
-bile duct

Front 93

Where in the liver is bile dumped into and collected?

Back 93

bile canaliculi

Front 94

What do hepatocytes produce?

Back 94

Bile

Front 95

What is the function of the stellate reticuloendothelial cells in the liver?

Back 95

phagocyte to old RBC, WBC, bacteria, toxins

Front 96

Which branch in the liver has oxygenated blood and no meal?

Back 96

branch of the hepatic artery

Front 97

What is in bile?

Back 97

cholesterol, bile pigments (bilirubun), bile salts

Front 98

Why are bile salts important?

Back 98

emulsifies fats for surface area

Front 99

What are the functions of the liver?

Back 99

-carb, lipid, protein metabolism
-detoxifies harmful substances in blood
-removes drugs and hormones
-stores, makes, and breaks down glycogen
-makes imortant plasma proteins
-phagocytosis
-stores Cu, Fe, vits, toxins
-activates Vit. D

Front 100

What is the function of the gallbladder?

Back 100

-stores bile
-extracts water from bile

Front 101

What type of cells make up the gallbladder?

Back 101

simple columnar with no submucosa

Front 102

What is the function of the small intestine?

Back 102

-chemical digestion
-absorption of meal

Front 103

What are the 3 regions of the small intestine?

Back 103

1.duodenum
2.jejunum
3.ilium

Front 104

What 3 parts of the small intestine increase surface area?

Back 104

1.plicae circularis
2.villus
3.microvilli

Front 105

What is the plicae circularis?

Back 105

folds in the mucosa of the small intestine

Front 106

What is the function of the absorptive cells in the small intestine and what surrounds them?

Back 106

-absorbs meal
-controls what is absorbed
-surrounded by microvilli

Front 107

What do goblet cells in the small intestine produce?

Back 107

mucus

Front 108

What do the enteroendocrine cells in the sm int produce?

Back 108

hormones
- secretin, CCK

Front 109

What is the function of the paneth cell in the sm int?

Back 109

phagocytic

Front 110

What are the villi in the sm int made of?

Back 110

columnar ep, cells

Front 111

What is the function of the capillary beds in the sm int?

Back 111

-absorbs most of meal
-absorbs amino acids, sugars, minerals, SMALL lipids

Front 112

What is the lacteal in the small int?

Back 112

lymphatic capillary

Front 113

What is the function of the lacteal?

Back 113

-absorbs LARGE lipids and lipid soluble vits

Front 114

What is the function of the large intestine?

Back 114

-ferments meal
-produces waste
-anaerobic

Front 115

What type of cells is the lrg int made of?

Back 115

simple columnar

Front 116

What does the cecum connect?

Back 116

the ileum to the large intestine

Front 117

What is the function of the vermiform appendix?

Back 117

orchestrates bad bacteria

Front 118

What typed of cells is the rectum made of?

Back 118

stratified squamos

Front 119

What type of muscle is the internal anal sphincter made of?

Back 119

smooth

Front 120

What type of muscle is the external anal sphincter made of?

Back 120

skeletal

Front 121

What is teniae coli?

Back 121

the longitudinal muscle bands running through the lrg int

Front 122

What are haustra?

Back 122

pouches made from the teniae coli

Front 123

What are omental appendages?

Back 123

pouches of fat along teniae coli

Front 124

What are the 4 processes needed to digest food?

Back 124

1.motility
2.secretion
3.digestion
4.absorption

Front 125

What comes into the mouth and is ingested?

Back 125

-800g solid food
-2.3L fluid
-1L saliva

Front 126

How many L of gastric juices are in the stomach?

Back 126

-2L
-HCL, digestive enzymes

Front 127

What is absorbed in the stomach?

Back 127

SOME
-water,ions, drugs, alcohol, short chain fatty acids

Front 128

How much bile is in the liver?

Back 128

1L

Front 129

How much pancreatic juice is in the pancreas?

Back 129

2L

Front 130

How many L total ends up in the sm int?

Back 130

4L total from sm int, liver, pancreas

Front 131

How many L are expelled from the sm.int?

Back 131

8.3L

Front 132

How many L come out of the lrg int?

Back 132

0.9L - very important to have

Front 133

How many L exit the rectum?

Back 133

0.1L

Front 134

Describe the mechanical digestion of food in the stomach

Back 134

-mixing waves (not in fundus)
-food turns to chyme
-vigorous waves move chyme to pyloric sphincter

Front 135

Describe the mechanical digestion of food in the stomach?

Back 135

-mouth enzymes: lingual lipase and salivary amylase
-mix with HCL= deactivated sa
-HCL activates pepsinogen, pepsin makes proteins smaller
-H ions denature proteins

Front 136

What are the 3 overlapping phases of digestion?

Back 136

1.cephalic
2.gastric
3.intestinal

Front 137

Describe the cephalic phase of digestion

Back 137

-sensory receptors
-cerebral cortex & hypothalmus
-medulla oblangata
-parasymp (vagas nerve)
-myenteric plexus

Front 138

During the cephalic phase, what controls the motility and what controls the secretions?

Back 138

m: myenteric plexus
s: submucosal plexus

Front 139

Describe the gastric phase of digestion

Back 139

-food in stomach
-stimuli: stretch, inc.pH
-stretch and chemo receptors
-inc.HCL and motility
-gastrin released
- liquify food
-push into sm int

Front 140

What hormone is involved in the gastric phase?

Back 140

Gastrin

Front 141

What does gastrin do?

Back 141

-strengthens contractions
-effects gastric glands
-tightens lower esoph sphincter
-relaxes pyloric sphincter

Front 142

What stimulates gastrin?

Back 142

-distension of stomach
-partially digested proteins
-high pH of chyme
-caffeine and Ach

Front 143

What produces gastrin?

Back 143

G cells in stomach

Front 144

Describe the intestinal phase of digestion

Back 144

-chyme to sm int stimulates neural response
-stretch receptors
-chemo receptors respond to pH and fatty acids
-CCK and secretin released
-gastric motility stops
-pyloric sphincter contracts

Front 145

What hormones are involved in the intestinal phase of digestion?

Back 145

-cholecystokinin- CCK
-secretin

Front 146

What stimulates CCK?

Back 146

-amino acids from stomach
-partially digested proteins and fatty acids

Front 147

What are the effects of CCK?

Back 147

-production of panc juices w/ dig. enzymes
-contr. of gallbladder
-relax. of hepatopancreatic ampulla
-inhibit gastric motility
-contract pyloric sphincter

Front 148

What stimulates secretin?

Back 148

acidic chyme

Front 149

What are the effects of secretin?

Back 149

-panc juices w/bicarbonate
-inhibit secretion of gastric juices
-enhance effect of CCK

Front 150

What is an enzyme for carbs?

Back 150

pancreatic amulase

Front 151

What are the 4 enzymes for protein?

Back 151

1.trypsin
2.chymotrypsin
3.carboxypeptidase
4.elastase

Front 152

What is the enzyme for triglycerides (lipids)?

Back 152

pancreatic lipase

Front 153

What are the 2 enzymes for nucleic acid (DNA, RNA)?

Back 153

1.ribonuclease
2.deoxoribonuclease

Front 154

What organ produces and releases digestive enzymes?

Back 154

pancreas

Front 155

What are brush border enzymes and where are they located?

Back 155

-enterokynase
-in villi of small int

Front 156

What molecules do brush border enzymes break down?

Back 156

trypsinogen into trypsin

Front 157

How is trypsin activated?

Back 157

-starts as trypsinogen
-enters lumen of sm int
-meets w/brush border which activates it to trypsin
-tryspin activates other enzymes

Front 158

Where does digestion occur in the small int?

Back 158

on the surface of the PM by the brush border enzymes

Front 159

What is intestinal juice and where is it?

Back 159

-in the sm int
-water, mucus, no enzymes, added to bile

Front 160

What is the function of intestinal juice?

Back 160

dissolves food

Front 161

What is the mixing/mechanical digestion called in the small intestine?

Back 161

segmentation

Front 162

What is segmentation?

Back 162

the sloshing of chyme in the small int so it can be absorbed

Front 163

What action follows segmentation?

Back 163

peristalsis

Front 164

What is peristalsis in the sm int?

Back 164

pushes chyme (whats not absorbed in segmentation) thru sm int

Front 165

What is the chyme made up of in the sm int?

Back 165

-partially digested and some whole proteins, lipids, and carbs

Front 166

What is absorbed by the body from carbs?

Back 166

monosacs (glucose)

Front 167

What is absorbed by the body from proteins?

Back 167

-aa
-dipeptides
-tripeptides

Front 168

What is absorbed by the body from lipids?

Back 168

monoglycerides and 2 fatty acids

Front 169

What is absorbed by the body from nucleic acids?

Back 169

-sugar
-Phosphate
-nitrogenous base

Front 170

How are carbs absorbed?

Back 170

secondary active trans. and facilitated diffusion

Front 171

How are proteins absorbed?

Back 171

active and secondary transport

Front 172

How are lipids absorbed?

Back 172

diffusion

Front 173

What are micelles?

Back 173

the delivery vesicle in the small intestine for lipids as triglycerides divided into 2FA w/ a monglyc to enter the cell

Front 174

What is a chylomicron?

Back 174

the vesicle in the sm int that takes triglyc+phospolipids+proteins+cholesterol out of the cell

Front 175

Where do carbs and proteins go after leaving the cells in the sm int?

Back 175

blood caps

Front 176

Where do lipids go after leaving the cells in the sm int?

Back 176

lacteal

Front 177

How is water absorbed in the body and what helps it do this?

Back 177

-by osmosis
-water follows nutrients

Front 178

How are electrolytes absorbed?

Back 178

active transport

Front 179

How are vitamins absorbed?

Back 179

-Fat sol: enter w/ lipids
-Water sol: simple diffusion

Front 180

How is vit. B12 absorbed?

Back 180

-combines w/ intrinsic factor
-enters ileum via receptor mediated endocytosis

Front 181

What are the 4 types of movements in the lrg int?

Back 181

1.gastroileal reflex
2.haustral churning
3.peristalsis
4.mass peristalsis

Front 182

Describe gastroileal reflex?

Back 182

when food enters stomach, the ileum of the sm int squeezes chyme into the lrg int

Front 183

Describe haustral churning

Back 183

stretching of the haustra contracts to move chyme up to next haustra

Front 184

Is peristalsis strong or weak?

Back 184

weak and slow

Front 185

Describe gastrocolic reflex aka mass peristalsis

Back 185

from the mid transverse colon, strong peristaltic waves move food to the rectum

Front 186

Are there any enzymes in the colon?

Back 186

no

Front 187

Describe chemical digestion in the lrg int

Back 187

-bacteria acts on chyme
-anearobic (fermentation)

Front 188

What are the by products of chemical digestion in the lrg int?

Back 188

Hydrogen, Co2, methane, vit B, vit K

Front 189

How long does the absorptive state last?

Back 189

12 hours

Front 190

Describe the absorptive state

Back 190

-fed state
-when food is present

Front 191

What hormones are involved in the absorptive state?

Back 191

insulin

Front 192

What is the role of insulin in the body?

Back 192

-helps w/metabolic rxns
-inc. anabolism and synthesis of storage molecules (triglyc and glyc)
-dec. catabolic rxns
-promotes entry of glucose and amino acids into cells
-stimulates phosphate to hook onto glucose in liver
-enhances synthesis of triglyc
-stimulates protein synth, tthyroid and growth hormone

Front 193

Describe the post-absorptive state

Back 193

-fasting
-no food

Front 194

What is the primary goal of the bosy during the post-abs state?

Back 194

maintain the blood's glucose levels

Front 195

How does the body try to maintain glucose levels?

Back 195

-use stored energy (triglyc and glycogen)
-create new glucose molecules
-switch to other energy sources (protein, fat)

Front 196

What is the normal level of glucose in the blood?

Back 196

70-110 mgs/100mL of blood

Front 197

What 3 hormones are involved in the post abs state?

Back 197

1.glucagon (panc)
2.norep
3. epi

Front 198

What does glucagon do?

Back 198

-makes new glucose molecules
-breaks down glycogen in liver

Front 199

What do norep and ep do in response to low blood sugar?

Back 199

-stimulate glycogen and fat breakdown
-raise glucose and free fatty acid blood levels

Front 200

What is the fate of lipids in the body?

Back 200

stored as fat

Front 201

Where are triglycerides stored in the body?

Back 201

50% subQ adipose tissue
12% kidneys
10-15% omenta
15% genitalia
5-8% muscle tissue
5% sulci of heart, behind eyes...

Front 202

What happens to carbs in the body?

Back 202

-glucose is burned up for energy
-glucose is stored in the liver or skel muscle
-excess stored as fat or glycogen

Front 203

What are the 3 fates of protein in the bosdy?

Back 203

1. building blocks for other proteins
2.turns to glucose
3. turns to triglycerides

Front 204

Define minerals

Back 204

inorganic substances needed by the body
-concentrated in bone

Front 205

What are the functions of minerals?

Back 205

-structural components
-nerve impulses
-regulate enzymatic rxns (coenzymes)
-catalyst for ADP to ATP
-buffer system (regulates pH)
-regulates osmosis

Front 206

Define Vitamins

Back 206

organic substances required in small amounts for normal metabolism and growth

Front 207

What are the functions of vitamins?

Back 207

-regulate physiological processes
-most are coenzymes

Front 208

What can't vitamins do/be?

Back 208

-don't provide energy
-not building blocks
-can't be made by the body
-no single source provides all vitamins

Front 209

What are the water soluble vitamins?

Back 209

B
C

Front 210

What are the function of antioxidants?

Back 210

they inactivate oxygen-free radicals

Front 211

What are some antioxidants?

Back 211

C
E
Beta-carotene

Front 212

What is lymph?

Back 212

-fluid found in the lymphatic system
-comparable to interstitial fluid
-contains small proteins that need to be returned to blood

Front 213

What % of the fluid that leaves the circulatory system at the caps returns via the lymphatic system?

Back 213

15%

Front 214

What are the 5 functions of the lympahtic system?

Back 214

1.drains tissue fluids from interstitial spaces and returns it to the CV system
2.processes lymph thru lymphoid tissues before returnin to CV system
3.phagocytosis
4.antibody formation
5.lipid absorption by lacteals of sm. int

Front 215

What are the components of the lymphatic system?

Back 215

-lymph
-lymphatic caps
-lymphatic vessels
-lympahtic trunks
-lymphatic ducts
-lymphatic tissue
-lymphatic nodes
-spleen
-thymus gland
-tonsils

Front 216

Describe the lymphatic capillaries

Back 216

-blind capillary sized vessels found in tissues
-microscopic
-involved with blood caps

Front 217

Where are lymphatic caps NOT found?

Back 217

-avascular tissue
-CNS
-spleenic pulp
-bone marrow

Front 218

What are some structural elements of lymphatic caps?

Back 218

-slightly larger than blood caps
-ends of cells overlap
-anchoring filaments

Front 219

What is the function of anchoring filament in the lymphatic caps?

Back 219

as tissue swells, anchoring fillaments pull on cells and increase space b/t cells
-leads to better drainage of the caps

Front 220

Describe the lymphatic vessels

Back 220

-pipe like structure the lymph caps drain into
-resemble veins with thinner walls and more valves
-drains lymph into nodes

Front 221

Where are lymphatic vessels found in the body?

Back 221

-SQ tissue
-follows veins
-in viscera follows arteries

Front 222

Describe lymphatic trunks

Back 222

-after most proximal group of nodes, vessels drain into trunks
-larger than vessels
-thinner than veins
-more valves

Front 223

What are the 5 principle lymphatic trunks?

Back 223

1.lumbar: R & L
2.intestinal
3.bronchomediastinal: R & L
4.subclavian: R & L
5.Jugular: R & L

Front 224

What do the lymphatic ducts drain from?

Back 224

trunks

Front 225

What are the 2 lymphatic ducts in the body?

Back 225

1.thoracic (L lymphatic duct)
2.R lymphatic duct

Front 226

Where is the thoracic lymphatic duct located?

Back 226

-starts at enlargement (cisterna chyli)
-2L

Front 227

Which is longer, thoracic or R lymphatic duct?

Back 227

thoracic: 15-18 in
R lymph: 1/2 in

Front 228

What are the 2 primary lymphatic organs?

Back 228

1.Red bone marrow
2.thymus gland

Front 229

What are the functions of the primary lymphatic organs?

Back 229

-produce T & B cells
-involved in the maturation of T & B cells

Front 230

What are the 3 secondary lymphatic organs?

Back 230

1.lymphatic nodes
2.spleen
3.lymphatic nodules

Front 231

What is the difference b/t nodes and nodules?

Back 231

nodes are surrounded by a capsule, nodules are not

Front 232

Describe the structure of the thymus gland

Back 232

-bi-lobed
-wrapped together and seperately in CT

Front 233

When does the size of the thymus gland begin to decrease?

Back 233

-after puberty
-large in infants
-hits max size at 10-12 yrs

Front 234

What is the function of the thymus gland?

Back 234

maturation of T-cells

Front 235

What are the functions of lymph nodes?

Back 235

-defense against pathogens
-macrophages
-production of plasma cells

Front 236

Where are lymph nodes concentrated?

Back 236

-groin
-armpit
-mammary glands
-elbow
-neck
-intestinal area
-back of knee

Front 237

Where is the largest mass of lymphatic tissue in the body?

Back 237

-core region near the important organs

Front 238

Why are lymph nodes concentrated in certain areas?

Back 238

-where infection may occur
-critical stations

Front 239

What is the flow of lymph thru the lymph node?

Back 239

1.afferent lymph vessel
2.subcapsular sinus
3.trabecular sinus
4.medullary sinus
5.efferent lymph vessel

Front 240

Describe the spleen

Back 240

-largest lymphoid mass in body
-outer serous memb.
-CT capsule w/ trabeculae
-white pulp: lymph tissue
-red pulp: venous sinuses

Front 241

What are the 3 functions of the spleen?

Back 241

1.phagocytosis of bacteria, platelets, RBCs
2.stores blood
3.produces blood cells in early dev.

Front 242

What are lymphatic nodules?

Back 242

oval shaped lymphatic tissue w/o a capsule
MALT

Front 243

What is MALT and where is it located?

Back 243

mucosa associated lymphoid tissue
-GI tract
-Repiratory tract
-urinary tract
-repro system

Front 244

What are the 3 types of tonils and how many of them are there?

Back 244

1. 5 pharyngeal
2. 2 palatine
3. 2 lingual

Front 245

What is Non-Specific Immunity?

Back 245

-provide protection to a WIDE VARIETY of pathogens
-present at birth
-aka innate immunity

Front 246

What 4 structures make up the first line of defense?

Back 246

1.skin
2.MM
3.body fluids
4.body reactions

Front 247

How does the skin provide protection against pathogens?

Back 247

-epidermis
-shedding
-sebacious glands
-acidity
-perspirations
-natural fauna

Front 248

How does the MM provide protection against pathogens?

Back 248

-ep. tissue
-goblet cells
-mucus
-hairs
-cilia
-tight junctions

Front 249

What are the body fluids that provide protections against pathogens?

Back 249

-tears
-saliva
-urine
-vag. secretions
-gastric juices

Front 250

How does puking and pooping help protect from pathogens?

Back 250

expels microbes

Front 251

What are the 5 Second Line of Defenses?

Back 251

1.internal anti-microbial proteins
2.phagocytosis
3.inflammation
4.natural killer cell
5.Fever

Front 252

What are the 3 internal anti-microbial proteins?

Back 252

1.interferons (IFNs)
2.complement system
3.transferrins

Front 253

How does an interferon work?

Back 253

-early warning
-produced by virus infected cells
-nearby cells produce anti-viral proteins that cut up DNA

Front 254

How does the complement system work?

Back 254

-series of plasma proteins
-enhances certain immune rxns when triggered

Front 255

How does a transferrin work?

Back 255

-binds to iron
-reduces amount of iron available to bacteria

Front 256

What are the 2 types of cells that provide Non-Specific protection?

Back 256

1.Natural killer cell (NK)
2.Phagocytes

Front 257

What is the function of the Natural Killer cell?

Back 257

can kill different types of pathogens

Front 258

What is the function of a phagocyte and what 2 types are they divided into?

Back 258

ingest microbes
1.wandering macrophages
2.fixed macrophages

Front 259

Define inflammation

Back 259

response to tissue damage

Front 260

What are the 4 (5) characteristics of inflammation?

Back 260

1.redness
2.pain
3.heat
4.swelling
(5.loss of function)

Front 261

What are the 3 basic stages of inflammation?

Back 261

1.vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels
2.emigration of phagocytes
3.tissue repair

Front 262

What chemicals are involved in the first stage of inflammation?

Back 262

histamine: mast cells, basophils, platelets
kinins: chemotactic agents
complement system

Front 263

What is happening in the first stage of inflammation?

Back 263

-increased blood flow and cells
-redness, swelling, heat

Front 264

What is happening in the second stage of inflammation?

Back 264

-occurs ~1 hr after damage
-first influx: neutrophils
-second influx: monocytes

Front 265

How does a fever protect you from pathogens?

Back 265

-speeds up body rxns and chemistry
-inhibits growth of pathogens

Front 266

Define Specific Resistance

Back 266

-ability of body to protect against SPECIFIC pathogens (smallpox, flu, AIDS)
-recognized as foreign vs. self
-aka adaptive immunity

Front 267

What are the 2 properties that distinguish specific resistance?

Back 267

1. SPECIFICITY for particular molecules: Ag
2. MEMORY for specific Ag previously encountered
RECOGNIZE & REMEMBER

Front 268

What is the difference between an Ag and a complete Ag?

Back 268

Ag only has reactivity while a complete Ag has both reactivity and immunogenicity

Front 269

Define Ag

Back 269

a substance that can provoke an immune response and can react with Ab

Front 270

What is immunogenicity?

Back 270

ABILITY of an Ag to PROVOKE an immune response by
-production of Ab
or
-proliferation of T-cells
or
-both

Front 271

What is reactivity?

Back 271

ABILITY of an Ag to REACT with Ab or with cells of immune system

Front 272

What is a complete Ag?

Back 272

has both reactivity and immunogenicity

Front 273

What is an epitope?

Back 273

a non-living SPECIFIC STRUCTURE molecule protein that triggers an immune response

Front 274

What is immunocompetence?

Back 274

MATURATION and production of cells that are responsible for SPECIFIC immunity
-specifically lymphocytes

Front 275

Where are B cells and T cells produced?

Back 275

bone marrow

Front 276

Where do B cells mature?

Back 276

bone marrow

Front 277

Where do T cells mature?

Back 277

thymus gland

Front 278

What are antigen receptors?

Back 278

-receptors inserted into membrane of B and T cells
-recognize and bind to SPECIFIC antigens

Front 279

What are the 2 types of immune response?

Back 279

1.cell-mediated
2.antibody mediated

Front 280

What is cell mediated immune response?

Back 280

-T cells stimulate cytotoxic T cells which directly attack on antigens
-they attack INTRAcellular pathogens (fungi, parasites, cancer, foreign tissues)
-always CELLS attacking other CELLS

Front 281

What is antibody mediated response?

Back 281

-B cell stimulates plasma cell which produces antibodies
-antibody binds to antigens in body fluids and EXTRAcellular pathogens

Front 282

What is an antibody?

Back 282

-glycoproteins (immunoglobulins)
-each Ab recognizes and binds to specific Ag
-can neutralize, inhibit, and destroy pathogens

Front 283

What is IgG?

Back 283

-80% of Ab
-4 polypeptide chains
-2 identicle heavy and light chains

Front 284

How many different epitopes can the human system recognize and bind to?

Back 284

at least 1 billion

Front 285

What are Major Histocompatability Complexes?

Back 285

-self antigens
-glycoproteins
-unique to each person
-thousands on each cell

Front 286

Where are MHC-I found?

Back 286

on all cells except RBCs

Front 287

Where are MHC-II found?

Back 287

on antigen presenting cells and most immune system cells

Front 288

Where are exogenous antigens found?

Back 288

-in fluids outside of body cells
-antigen presenting cells
macrophages, Bcells, dendritic cells

Front 289

What Ag can B cells recognize and bind to withOUT help?

Back 289

-in lymph
-in interstitial
-in blood plasma

Front 290

How do T-cells bind to Ag?

Back 290

-with help from APC
-presenting requires Ag with MHC-II protein

Front 291

How are exogenous antigens processed?

Back 291

1.ingestion of Ag
2.digestion of Ag
3.fusion of vesicles (Ag or MHC-II)
4.binding of peptide fragments (Ag) to MHC-II to form a complex
5.insertion of Ag-MHC-II Complex into plasma memb

Front 292

What happens after exogenous antigen processing?

Back 292

1.APC goes to lymph tissue
2.presents Ag to cells
3.T cells that are capable of recognizing the complex will become activated

Front 293

What are endogenous antigens?

Back 293

-produced within cells (viral proteins, abnormal proteins)
-processed within cells

Front 294

How is an endogenous Ag processed?

Back 294

1.fragments of Ag bind to MHC-I molecules, becoming a complex
2.complex inserted into membrane of cell
3.signals infection

Front 295

What are T cells also called?

Back 295

CD-8

Front 296

What are helper T cells also called?

Back 296

CD-4

Front 297

How are the helper T cells involved in cell mediated immunity?

Back 297

-enhances activation and proliferation of T cells, B cells, and NK cells
-has CD-4 protein on surface

Front 298

How are helper T cells activated?

Back 298

1.APC presents Ag-MHC-II complex to helper T cells
2.Helper T cell binds to Ag using TCR, and binds to MHC-II using CD-4 protein
3.this binding activates helper T cell
4. costimulation fo helper T cell by APC

Front 299

How are helper T cells proliferated and differentiated?

Back 299

clone helper T cell into 2 populations:
1.memory T cell
2.active helper T cells

Front 300

What is the function of cytoxic T cells and what are they also called?

Back 300

-kill other cells with chemicals
-CD-8

Front 301

How are invaders eliminated during cell-mediated immunity?

Back 301

-by cytotoxic T-cells
-perforin
-lymphotoxin
-gamma-interferon

Front 302

What complex do CD4 proteins bind to?

Back 302

MHC-II

Front 303

What complex do CD8 proteins bind to?

Back 303

MHC-I

Front 304

What type of tissue cells do Cytotoxic T cells target?

Back 304

-body cells infected with viruses
-some tumor cells
-tissue transplants

Front 305

What is needed to activate a Cytotoxic T cell?

Back 305

1.binding of CD8 to MHC-1 on target cell
2.binding of TCR to Ag presented by target cell in MHC-1
3.costimulation by helper T cell with its MHC-II

Front 306

What happens after activation of a cytoxic t cell?

Back 306

Proliferation: clones
Differentiation: activated cells and memory cells

Front 307

What are Bcells and where are they located?

Back 307

Bcells turn into plasma cells which turn into Ab
-primarily in lymph nodes

Front 308

How are B cells activated?

Back 308

lymphocytes respond to
-unprocessed Ag
-processed Ag

Front 309

What happens after the activation of Bcells?

Back 309

proliferation: clones
differentiation:plasma cells and memory cells

Front 310

What are plasma cells?

Back 310

-activated Bcells
-protein factory: produces MANY Ab

Front 311

What are the 5 functions of Ab?

Back 311

1.Neutralizing Ag
2.immobilizing bacteria
3.agglutination and precipitation of Ag
4.activation of complement system
5.enhancing phagocytosis

Front 312

What is immunological memory?

Back 312

-long lasting Ab
-long-lived lymphocytes (memory cells)

Front 313

What is primary response?

Back 313

-1st exposure
-only a few cells present
-no Ab present
-7-10 days for effective response

Front 314

What is secondary response?

Back 314

-After 1st exposure
-memory cells
-long-lasting Ab
-faster/more effective

Front 315

What is the endocrine system?

Back 315

consists of a set of glands, organs, and cells that produce hormone which regulate body metabolism and homeostasis

Front 316

What is a hormone?

Back 316

a secretion of endocrine cells that alters the physiology and activity of target cells of the body

Front 317

What are the 4 functions of hormones?

Back 317

1.regulation
2.coordinating and integration of growth and dev.
3.regulation and dev. of repro system
4.regulation of circadian rythyms

Front 318

What do hormones regulate?

Back 318

-chemical composition
-vol. of internal environment
-metabolism and energy balance
-sm. muscle contraction
-glandular secretions
-homeostasis against disruptions
-immune system

Front 319

What are the 4 chemical classes of hormones?

Back 319

1.steroids
2.amines
3.peptides and proteins
4.eicosanoids

Front 320

Describe steroids

Back 320

-lipid based
-derived from cholesterol
-endocrine tissue derived from medoserm

Front 321

What are some steroid hormones?

Back 321

-aldosterone
-cortisol
-testosterone
-estrogen
-progesterone

Front 322

Describe amines

Back 322

-structurally simplest
-modified amino acids

Front 323

What are some amine hormones?

Back 323

-seratonin/melatonin
-ep/norep

Front 324

What is the difference b/t proteins and peptides and what are some examples of each?

Back 324

pr: 50+ aa long (insulin)
pep: 3-49 aa long (ADH, oxytocin)

Front 325

Describe eicosanoids

Back 325

-fatty acid
-derived from archidonic
-all cells except RBCs produce these

Front 326

What are some eicosanoid hormones?

Back 326

-prostoglandis
-leukotrienes

Front 327

What are circulating hormones?

Back 327

-produced by endocrine cells
-released into blood
-act on distant target cell that has the receptor for the hormone
-broken down by liver
-excreted by kidneys
-lives min-hrs

Front 328

What are local hormones?

Back 328

-do not circulate in blood
-inactivated quickly
-broken down in tissue
-lives sec-min
-2 types

Front 329

What are the 2 types of local hormones?

Back 329

-paracrine: stimulate nearby cell
-autocrine: stimulate self

Front 330

What 2 types of hormones are transported in blood?

Back 330

1.lipid soluble
2.water soluble

Front 331

What are some lipid soluble hormones?

Back 331

steroid
thyroid

Front 332

How are lipid soluble hormones transported in the blood?

Back 332

transport proteins
-improve transportability
-ritard passage thru kidney
-operate as hormone reserve

Front 333

How are water soluble hormones transported in the blood?

Back 333

-in soln w/in circ.system
-easily excreted by kidneys
-no reserve

Front 334

What is a receptor?

Back 334

-on target cells for specific hormone to bind to
-constant change over
-many on a cell

Front 335

What is up regulation?

Back 335

-inc # of receptors
-due to deficiency in hormones

Front 336

What is down regulation?

Back 336

-dec # of receptors
-due to inc in hormones

Front 337

What are the 5 responses of hormone action?

Back 337

1.synthesis of new protein
2.change in permeability of plasma memb,
3.stim transport of substances in/out of cells
4.change metabolic rxns
5.sm. muscle contractions

Front 338

Describe the mechanism of action for lipid soluble hormones

Back 338

1.diffusion out of blood to interstitial fluid into cell
2.binds to receptor in cytosol or nucleus
3.activates receptor which alters gene expression

Front 339

Describe the mechanism of action for water soluble hormones

Back 339

1.bind to receptor in PM of cell (1st messenger)
2.activation of G protein
3.activation of cAMP (2nd messenger)
4.activates protein kinases
5.protein kinase activates specific enzyme

Front 340

Describe the hypothalmus

Back 340

-master control
-9 different hormones

Front 341

What is the function of the anterior pit gland?

Back 341

releasing and inhibiting hormones

Front 342

What are the 5 major gland cells of the ant pit gland and what hormones do they produce?

Back 342

1.somatotrophs
-human growth hormone (hGH)
2.thryotrophs
-thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
3.gonadotrophs
-follicle stimulatin hormone (FSH)
-luteinizing hormone (LH)
4.lactotrophs
-prolactin
5.corticotrophs
-ACTH
-melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)

Front 343

What is the function of LH?

Back 343

-stim of secretions
-estrogens, progest., testost.
-maturation of oocytes
-production of sperm

Front 344

What is the function of the post pit gland?

Back 344

-release of ADH and oxytocin

Front 345

What does the thyroid gland consist of?

Back 345

-follicular cells (T3 and T4)
-parafollicular cells (calcitonin)
-colloid

Front 346

Describe the thyroid gland

Back 346

-stores own product
-receives 8-120ml/day of blood

Front 347

What does T3 and T4 regulate?

Back 347

-O2 use/basal metabolic rate
-cellular metabolism
-growth and dev.

Front 348

What is basal metabolic?

Back 348

-stim. synthesis of Na/K ATPase
-uses up ATP
-aka: calorigenic effect

Front 349

What is cellular metabolism?

Back 349

-protein synth
-use of glucose for ATP
-brkdwn of lipids
-reduced blood cholesterol

Front 350

What is the function of calcitonin?

Back 350

-maintain homeostasis of Ca, Po3, HPO4
-inhibit brkdwn of bone
-accelerate uptake of Ca and phosphates in bone

Front 351

What 2 cells are located in the parathyroid gland?

Back 351

1.principal cells (chief cells) make PTH
2.oxyphil cells

Front 352

What is the function of PTH?

Back 352

-inc activity and # of osteoclasts
-in kidney: inc. rate of Ca and Mg reabsorption. inhibit reabsorption of phosphates
-promote formation of calcitriol

Front 353

What are the 2 tissues in the adrenal gland?

Back 353

1.adrenal cortex
2.adrenal medulla

Front 354

What are the 3 zones dividing the adrenal cortex?

Back 354

1.zona glomerulosa
2.zona fasiculata
3.zona reticularis

Front 355

What does the zona glomerulosa produce?

Back 355

-mineral corticoids
-95% from aldosterone

Front 356

What does the zona fasiculata produce?

Back 356

-glucocorticoids
-95% from cortisol

Front 357

What does the zona reticularis produce?

Back 357

-androgens
-DHEA
-sex hormones

Front 358

What 2 hormones are produced by the adrenal medulla?

Back 358

-80% ep.
-20% nor ep

Front 359

What are the 4 endocrine cells produced by the pancreatic islets and what hormones do they produce?

Back 359

1.Acells: glucagon
2.Bcells: insulin
3.Dcells: somatostatin
4.Fcells: pancreatic polypeptide

Front 360

What is the function of somatostatin?

Back 360

-inhibits insulin and glucagon
-slows absorption in GI tract

Front 361

What is the function of panc. polypeptide?

Back 361

-inhibits somatostatin
-contraction of gallbladder
-inc. panc digestive enzymes

Front 362

What are gonads?

Back 362

ovaries and testes

Front 363

What hormones are produced by the ovaries?

Back 363

-estrogen
-progesterone
-inhibin
-relaxin

Front 364

What hormones are produced by the testes?

Back 364

testosterone

Front 365

What are the unique characteristics of the repro system?

Back 365

1.Latent Development
2.striking sexual dimorphism
3.visual differences
4.not necessary for survival
5.specialized for physical stimulation

Front 366

What are the functions of the repro system?

Back 366

1.gamete formation
2.store, develop, and deliver gametes
3.provide for fertilization and zygote development
4.provide for embryonic and fetal development
5.provide for feeding newborn
6.provide for endocrine control over reproductive development and behavior

Front 367

What are the components of the repro system?

Back 367

1.gametes
2.primary organs
3.secondary organs
4.secondary sexual characteristics

Front 368

What are the primary organs of the repro system?

Back 368

gonads

Front 369

What are the secondary organs of the repro system?

Back 369

-ducts
-glands
-erectile tissue
-hollow organs

Front 370

What is the function of FSH in the male repro system?

Back 370

works with testosterone to stimulate spermatogenesis

Front 371

What is the function of LH in the male repro system?

Back 371

stimulates testosterone

Front 372

Describe the process of hormonal control beginning in the hypothalmus at puberty

Back 372

hypothalmus
GnRH
ant.pit
FSH and LH
testes (sertoli) and testes (leydig)
ABP and testosterone
ABP binds to testosterone

Front 373

Where are the leydig cells and what is their function?

Back 373

-in the testes
-produce testosterone

Front 374

What is dihydrotestosterone and where is it located?

Back 374

-potent testosterone
-in seminal vesicles

Front 375

Where are sertoli cells and what is their function?

Back 375

-in testes
-surrounds sperm cells
-nutures

Front 376

What is the function of ABP?

Back 376

-produced by sertoli
-binds to testosterone

Front 377

What are the numbers for sperm?

Back 377

-65-75 days to make
-300million/day
-50-150million/ml/ejaculate
-2.5-5mL of ejaculate
-below 20 million = infertile

Front 378

Where does sperm production begin?

Back 378

seminiferous tubules

Front 379

Where is sperm stored?

Back 379

epididymis

Front 380

Describe the seminal vesicles

Back 380

-60% vol of semen
-alkaline to neutralize vagina
-fructose for ATP
-prostoglandis
-clotting proteins

Front 381

Describe the prostate gland

Back 381

-25% vol of semen
-milky white
-citric acid for energy
-protolytic enzymes
acid phosphotase

Front 382

Describe the bulborethral gland

Back 382

-mucus for lube and protection

Front 383

What 2 (3) cycles is the female repro system composed of?

Back 383

1.ovaries
2. uterus
(3. breasts and cervix)

Front 384

What are the functions of the female repro system?

Back 384

1.production of ova
2.site of fertilization
3.development and support of embryo and fetus
4.mechanism for parturition
5.machanism for feeding
6.development of secondary sex characteristics

Front 385

What is the function of LH in the female repro system?

Back 385

stimulates ovaries and corpus luteum

Front 386

What is the function of FSH in the female repro system?

Back 386

stimulates ovaries and follicles

Front 387

Describe the hormonal release from the hypothalmus in the femal repro system

Back 387

hypothalmus
GnRH
ant. pit
FSH and LH
ovaries
estrogens and progesterone and inhibin
uterus

Front 388

What is involved in Meiosis 1 in the events of oogenesis?

Back 388

-begins before birth
-goes into stasis until puberty

Front 389

When is meiosis 2 completed in the events of oogenesis?

Back 389

not until after fertilization

Front 390

Where are estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin produced?

Back 390

ovaries

Front 391

What is the function of the corona radiata?

Back 391

-surrounds egg
-nurtures

Front 392

What are the 2 layers of the endometrium in the uterus?

Back 392

1.stratum basalis
2.stratum functionalis

Front 393

What is the stratum functionalis?

Back 393

-produced once a month
-base for egg implantation
-derived from stratum basalis
-sloughs off if egg is unfertilized: period

Front 394

What is the stratum basalis?

Back 394

-always in endometrium
-gives rise to stratum functionalis

Front 395

What are the parts of the vulva?

Back 395

-mons pubis
-labia major
-labia minor
-skenes glands
-greater vestibular gland
-lesser vestibular gland

Front 396

What is the adventitia and where is it located?

Back 396

-aereolar CT
-no ep.cells
-in esophagus lining the muscularis layer

Front 397

What are gastric pits and where are they located?

Back 397

-in the mucosa of the stomach
-mucous surface cells
-simple columnar

Front 398

What are the three muscular layers of the muscularis in the stomach?

Back 398

1. oblique
2. circular
3. longitudinal

Front 399

What is the purpose of the oblique layer in the muscularis of the stomach?

Back 399

an additional layer to help liquify food

Front 400

What 5 main things are in the mucosa of the small intestine?

Back 400

1. villi
2. lacteal
3. simple columnar ep
4. intestinal gland
5. goblet cells

Front 401

What are villi and where are they located?

Back 401

-finger like projections
-in the mucosa of the small intestine

Front 402

What is lacteal and where is it located?

Back 402

-absorbs lipids from a meal
-in the villi of the mucosa in the small intestine

Front 403

Where is the intestinal gland located?

Back 403

-in the base of the villi in the small intestine

Front 404

What comes through the central vein of the liver?

Back 404

oxygenated blood

Front 405

What are sinusoids in the liver?

Back 405

capillaries that converge toward central vein

Front 406

What is the pancreatic islet and what does it do?

Back 406

-endocrine
-produces hormones

Front 407

What is acini and where is it?

Back 407

-exocrine
-surrounds pancreatic islet

Front 408

What are fauces?

Back 408

the opening into the throat

Front 409

What is a lingual frenulum?

Back 409

connects tongue to lower jaw

Front 410

What is the parotid gland and where is it located?

Back 410

-produces saliva
-between muscle and skin of cheek

Front 411

What is the sublingual gland and where is it located?

Back 411

-produces saliva
-under tongue

Front 412

Where is the palatoglossal arch compared to the palatopharyngeal arch?

Back 412

glossal is frontal
pharyngeal is further back

Front 413

Where is the submandibular gland?

Back 413

deep to the sublingual gland

Front 414

What are the 3 regions of the tooth?

Back 414

1. crown
2. neck
3. root

Front 415

What are the 4 major regions of the stomach?

Back 415

1.cardia
2.fundus
3.body
4.pylorus

Front 416

What type of muscle makes up the pyloric sphincter?

Back 416

smooth

Front 417

The pyloric sphincter controls the opening to the...

Back 417

small intestine

Front 418

The lesser omentum hangs the...

Back 418

stomach from the liver

Front 419

The greater omentum connects to the.... off of the...

Back 419

transverse colon
greater curvature

Front 420

What is an intestinal gland?

Back 420

pits between the villi in the small int

Front 421

What is the mesentary?

Back 421

-extension of peritoneum
-hold sm int to back wall

Front 422

What is the function of the anal column?

Back 422

helps grip and hold feces

Front 423

What 2 structures feed blood into the sinusoid of the liver?

Back 423

1.branch of hepatic portal vein
2.branch of hepatic artery

Front 424

What type of cells make up the esophagus?

Back 424

nonkerat. stratified sq

Front 425

What type of cells make up the stomach and the sm int?

Back 425

simple columnar

Front 426

How many sets of salivary glands are there? Name them

Back 426

3 sets
1.sublingual
2.parotid
3.submandibular

Front 427

What does Lugol's iodine detect?

Back 427

Starch

Front 428

What does Benedict's detect?

Back 428

simple sugars

Front 429

What does Biuret's detect?

Back 429

protein

Front 430

What is an example of a simple sugar monosac?

Back 430

glucose

Front 431

What is an example of simple sugars disac?

Back 431

lactose, sucrose, maltose

Front 432

What is an example of a complex sugar polysac?

Back 432

starch

Front 433

What is an example of a protein?

Back 433

milk proteins

Front 434

What is the color of Lugol's iodine when starch is present?

Back 434

dark blue

Front 435

What is the color of Lugol's in its controlled state?

Back 435

amber

Front 436

What is the color of Benedict's in its controlled state?

Back 436

blue

Front 437

What is the color of Benedict's when simple sugars are present?

Back 437

orange, red, green, yellow

Front 438

What is the color of Biuret when in its controlled state?

Back 438

blue

Front 439

What is the color of Biuret when proteins are present?

Back 439

purple

Front 440

What is the substrate and end product for salivary and pancreatic amylase?

Back 440

s: starches
ep: maltose, maltotriose, a-dextrins

Front 441

What is a hydrolytic rxn?

Back 441

water replaces broken bonds

Front 442

What is the active site?

Back 442

where chemistry is taking place

Front 443

what does an enzyme do?

Back 443

-speeds up rxn
-biological catalyst
-lowers activation energy of rxn for a faster rxn

Front 444

How does temp and pH affect enzymes?

Back 444

can make them work well or poorly depending on where enzyme works best in body

Front 445

What are the products of starch and water when activated by amylase?

Back 445

disacs and trisacs

Front 446

what are the end products for amylase?

Back 446

disacs and trisacs

Front 447

What is the substrate for amylase?

Back 447

starch and water

Front 448

How does Lugols show the digestion of substrates with the amylase?

Back 448

breaks the starch down into small dark particles

Front 449

What is a large molecule resulting from anabolism?

Back 449

macromolecule

Front 450

What is the enzyme that hydrolyzes lipids?

Back 450

lipase

Front 451

What is the enzyme the hydrolyzes carbs?

Back 451

amylase

Front 452

What is the enzyme that hydrolyzes proteins?

Back 452

protease

Front 453

Proteins are hydrolyzed into and absorbed as...

Back 453

amino acids

Front 454

Lipids are hydrolyzed into and absorbed as....

Back 454

monoglycerides and fatty acids

Front 455

Carbs are hydrolyzed into and absorbed as....

Back 455

monosacs

Front 456

carb digestion begins in....

Back 456

the mouth

Front 457

bile salts prepare lipids for digestion in a process called...

Back 457

emulsification

Front 458

lipid digestion begins in...

Back 458

the stomach by lingual lipase

Front 459

protein digestion begins in...

Back 459

the stomach by pepsin and HCl

Front 460

what type of pH level does amylase work best at?

Back 460

basic

Front 461

What organs produce carb enzymes?

Back 461

-pancreas
-salivary glands
-sm.int (brush border)

Front 462

where does lipid digestion occur? (2)

Back 462

1.stomach
2.sm int

Front 463

What organs produce protein enzymes?

Back 463

-stomach
-pancreas
-sm int

Front 464

What are the 3 protective layers of the kidney and what are they made of?

Back 464

1.renal capsule (CT, thin)
2.adipose capsule (adipose tissue)
3.renal fascia (CT)

Front 465

What enters thru the renal arteries?

Back 465

oxygenated, unfiltered blood

Front 466

What exits thru the renal veins?

Back 466

filtered, deoxygenated blood

Front 467

What are the functions of the nephron?

Back 467

-produces urine
-filters blood

Front 468

What does the filtrate in the tubules turn into?

Back 468

urine

Front 469

What is the detrusor muscle?

Back 469

the muscular wall of the bladder

Front 470

What type of muscle is the internal and external urethral sphincters made of?

Back 470

Int: smooth
Ext: skeletal

Front 471

What 4 organs make up the urinary system?

Back 471

1.kidneys
2.ureters
3.bladder
4.urethra

Front 472

What ions do the kidneys regulate?

Back 472

Na
K
Ca
Cl
HPO4

Front 473

What are the two ions of the kidneys that regulate blood pH?

Back 473

1.excretion of H+
2.conservation of HCO3-

Front 474

How do the kidneys regulate blood volume?

Back 474

by conserving or eliminating water

Front 475

What enzyme of the kidney is important for regulating blood pressure?

Back 475

renin

Front 476

How do the kidneys regulate blood osmolarity?

Back 476

they separate water from ions

Front 477

What is the osmolarity of the blood?

Back 477

290-300 milliosmols/L

Front 478

What 2 hormones do the kidneys produce?

Back 478

1.calcitriol (active vit.D)
2.erythropoeitin

Front 479

What does calcitriol do?

Back 479

regulates Ca

Front 480

What does erythropoeitin do?

Back 480

stimulates RBC production

Front 481

What waste products do the kidneys excrete and where are they from?

Back 481

-ammonia and urea: amino acids
-bilirubin: hemoglobin
-creatinine: creatin Phosphate
-uric acid: nucleic acids

Front 482

What are the 8 functions of the kidneys?

Back 482

1.regulates blood ionic composition
2.regulates blood pH
3.regulates blood vol.
4.regulates BP
5.maintains blood osmolarity
6.produces hormones
7.regulates blood glucose
8.excretes waste and foreign bodies

Front 483

Which organs are retroperitoneal?

Back 483

kidneys and ureters

Front 484

Which gender has overlapping urinary and repro systems?

Back 484

male

Front 485

Which gender has the smaller bladder?

Back 485

female

Front 486

What structures make up the trigone?

Back 486

-2 openings of the ureters
-internal urethral orifice

Front 487

What does micturition mean?

Back 487

urination

Front 488

In what 3 ways is urine moved thru the ureters?

Back 488

1. peristaltic waves
2.gravity
3.hydrostatic pressure

Front 489

What is the functional unit of the kidneys?

Back 489

the nephron

Front 490

Describe the micturition reflex

Back 490

1.stretch receptors send signal to spinal cord (micturition center)
2.micturition center sends signal to bladder which triggers the reflex
3.parasymp. impulses go to the bladder
4. PEE

Front 491

What causes the micturition reflex?

Back 491

1.constriction of the detrusor muscle
2.relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter
3.stop of stimulation of external urethral sphincter

Front 492

Describe the functional sphincter at the ureter-bladder union

Back 492

-the ureter enters the bladder posteriorly and obliquely
-as bladder increases in size, the ureters angle changes
-this leads to a crimp in the ureter

Front 493

How many L do the kidneys filter daily?

Back 493

180 L

Front 494

Describe the anatomy of the female urethra

Back 494

-posterior to pubic symphysis
-4 cm long
-opening b/t clitoris and vag opening

Front 495

Describe the anatomy of the male urethra

Back 495

-passes thru prostate gland and penis
-15-20 cm long
-also carries sperm

Front 496

Describe the 3 sections of mucosa of the female urethra

Back 496

1.transitional ep: cuboidal to squamos
2.strat.columnar or psuedostrat columnar
3.nonkerat.strat sq

Front 497

Describe the muscularis of the female urethra

Back 497

-sm muscle
-circular layer only
-continues from bladder

Front 498

What are the 3 sections of the male urethra called and where do they pass thru?

Back 498

1.prostatic urethra:prostate
2.membranous urethra: urogenital diaphragm
3.spongy urethra: penis

Front 499

What type of cells are in the prostatic urethra?

Back 499

transitional ep to strat columnar or pseudostrat columnar

Front 500

What type of cells are in the membranous urethra?

Back 500

strat columnar or psuedostrat columnar

Front 501

What type of cells are in the spongy urethra?

Back 501

strat columnar or pseudostrat columnar to nonkerat. strat sq.

Front 502

Where in the male is the bladder located?

Back 502

anterior to the rectum

Front 503

Where in the female is the bladder located?

Back 503

anterior to the vagina
inferior to the uterus

Front 504

Describe the mucosa of the bladder

Back 504

-sm muscle
-folded, rugae
-transitional ep

Front 505

Describe the muscularis of the bladder

Back 505

-sm muscle
-detrusor muscle
-3 layers:
inner long.
middle circ.
outer long.

Front 506

What are the 2 sphincters in the bladder and what type of muscle are they made of?

Back 506

1.internal urethral sphincter (sm)
2.external urethral sphincter (skel)

Front 507

How many mLs of urine can the bladder hold?

Back 507

700-800 mLs

Front 508

At how many mLs will the stretch receptors of the bladder activate the micturition reflex?

Back 508

200-400 mLs

Front 509

Describe the ureter

Back 509

-20-30 cm long
-diameter of wall increases as it descends
-enters the bladder posteriorly and obliquely

Front 510

Describe the mucosa of the ureter

Back 510

-transitional ep

Front 511

Describe the muscularis of the ureter

Back 511

-inner long.
-outer circ.
-distal 1/3 outer long

Front 512

Does the ureter have an adventitia or a serosa?

Back 512

adventitia

Front 513

What 3 things enter the renal hilus?

Back 513

1.renal artery
2.renal vein
3.ureter

Front 514

What are the three layers that surround the kidney?

Back 514

1.Renal Fascia (outer)
2.adipose capsule (middle)
3.renal capsule (inner)

Front 515

What is the function of the renal fascia and what is it made of?

Back 515

-anchors kidney in the cavity
-made of dense irreg. CT

Front 516

What is the function of the adipose capsule and what is it made of?

Back 516

-protection, anchor
-made of adipose tissue

Front 517

What is the function of the renal capsule and what is it made of?

Back 517

-barrier against danger
-made of smooth, transparent, fibrous tissue

Front 518

What are the two regions of the kidneys and what does each include?

Back 518

1.renal cortex : renal columns, renal corpuscle
2.renal medulla: renal pyramids, loop of henle

Front 519

Why is the renal cortex lighter in color than the renal medulla?

Back 519

the renal cortex has a lower concentration of solutes

Front 520

How many renal pyramids are in the renal medulla?

Back 520

8-18

Front 521

What is the order of drainage of urine in the kidneys?

Back 521

1.renal papillae
2.minor calyx
3.major calyx
4.renal pelvis
5.ureter

Front 522

What is the functional unit of the kidneys and how many are there?

Back 522

nephron
-about 1 million in each kidney

Front 523

Lis the 15 paths taking blood thru the kidneys in order

Back 523

1.renal artery
2.segmental arteries
3.interlobar arteries
4.arcuate arteries
5.interlobular arteries
6.afferent arterioles
7.glomulerus
8.efferent arterioles
9.peritubular cap
10.peritubular venules
11.interlobular veins
12.arcuate veins
13.interlobar veins
14.segmental veins
15.renal vein

Front 524

What type of blood does the renal artery take into the kidney?

Back 524

-oxygenated
-unfiltered
-1200 mL/min

Front 525

Which is larger, efferent or afferent arterioles?

Back 525

afferent

Front 526

What type of blood does the renal vein take out of the kidney?

Back 526

-deoxygenated
-filtered

Front 527

What type of cell are in the wall of the afferent arteriole?

Back 527

juxtaglomerular cells (smooth)

Front 528

What type of cell are in the ascending loop of henle?

Back 528

macula densa

Front 529

What type of cell are in the visceral layer of the glomerulus?

Back 529

podocytes (mod. simple sq. ep)

Front 530

What are the 3 differences between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons?

Back 530

1.length of loop of henle
2.bowman capsule location
3.cap shape

Front 531

What type of shape do each of the nephrons' caps take?

Back 531

C: peritubular
J: vasa recta

Front 532

Are there more cortical or juxtamedullary nephrons?

Back 532

cortical

Front 533

What are mesangial cells and what do they do?

Back 533

-sm. muscle cells in the renal corpuscle
-expands/collapses cap bed
-changes surface area for filtering blood

Front 534

What 2 things make up the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

Back 534

1.portions of the afferent arterioles' juxtaglomerular cells
2.portions of ascending limb of henle's macula densa cells

Front 535

What is the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

Back 535

reduce/increase amount of blood entering the renal corpuscle

Front 536

What are the 3 functions of the nephron?

Back 536

1.filtration
2.reabsorption
3.secretion

Front 537

What 3 structures make up the filtration membrane?

Back 537

1.endothelial fenestrations of the glomerulus
2.BM of the glomerulus
3.slit membrane b/t pedicels of podocytes

Front 538

What does the endothelial fenestrations of the glomerulus filter?

Back 538

cells

Front 539

What does the BM of the glomerulus filter?

Back 539

large proteins

Front 540

What does the slit membrane b/t the pedicels of podocytes filter?

Back 540

medium proteins

Front 541

What type of cells are in the proximal convoluted tubule?

Back 541

-simple cuboidal with brush border on microvilli

Front 542

What is the function of the proximal convoluted tubule?

Back 542

inc. surface area to absorb filtered material

Front 543

What type of cells make up the descending limb of the loop of Henle?

Back 543

simple sq. ep.

Front 544

What type of cells make up the ascending limb of the loop of Henle?

Back 544

simple cuboidal to low columnar

Front 545

What type of cells make up the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts?

Back 545

-simple cuboidal
-principal and intercalated (w/ microvilli) cells

Front 546

What 2 hormone receptors does the principal cells of the distal conv. tubule and collecting ducts have?

Back 546

1.anti-diuretic hormone
2.aldosterone

Front 547

What is the function of the intercalated cells in the distal conv. tubule and collecting ducts?

Back 547

plays a role in the homeostasis of blood pH

Front 548

What are the 3 reasons that the volume of fluid filtered in the renal corpuscle is greater than other caps?

Back 548

1.large surface area
2.filtration memb. is thin and porous (50x leakier)
3.glomerular cap pressure (high)

Front 549

Which pressures oppose filtration?

Back 549

CHP
BCOP

Front 550

Which pressures promote filtration?

Back 550

GBHP

Front 551

What 3 pressures are responsible for glomerular filtration?

Back 551

1.Glomerular Blood Hydrostatic Pressure (GBHP)
2.Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP)
3.Blood Colloid Hydrostatic Pressure (BCOP)

Front 552

What is the typical Net Filtration Pressure (NFP) that produces a normal amount of blood plasma filtration?

Back 552

10 mmHg

Front 553

What is Net Filtration Pressure?

Back 553

GBHP-(CHP+BCOP)=NFP
55-(15+30)=10mmHg

Front 554

Define Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

Back 554

the amount of filtrate formed in all renal corpuscles of both kidneys each minute

Front 555

What is the average Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) in adults?

Back 555

125 mL/min

Front 556

What pressure affects Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) and how?

Back 556

Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)
-inc. NFP= loss of important solutes
-dec. NFP= insufficient amount filtered

Front 557

What is the equation for Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)?

Back 557

GFR= Kf x NFP

Front 558

What 3 mechanisms regulate Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)?

Back 558

1.renal autoregulation
2.neural regulation
3.hormonal regulation

Front 559

In general, how do the 3 mechanisms that regulate GFR operate?

Back 559

1.adjusting blood flow in and out of the caps
2.altering cap surface

Front 560

What are the 2 mechanisms involved in renal autoregulation?

Back 560

1.myogenic mechanism
2.tubuloglomerular feedback

Front 561

What is the main purpose of renal autoregulation of GFR?

Back 561

controls or responds to normal everyday changes in BP

Front 562

Describe the stimulus and effects of the myogenic mechanism of renal autoregulation

Back 562

stimulus: stretching of sm. muscle in the walls of the afferent arteriole from inc. BP
effects:sm. muscle cells contract to resist inc. in diameter of afferent arteriole

Front 563

Describe the stimulus and effects of the tubuloglomerular feedback of renal autoregulation

Back 563

stimulus: inc. Na, Cl, H2O go to macula densa due to high BP (inc. in GFR)
effects: dec. nitric oxide from juxtaglomerular apparatus leads to the constriction of the afferent arteriole. This leads to less blood flow to the renal corpuscle and a reduced GFR

Front 564

What 2 hormones are important for hormonal regulation of GFR?

Back 564

1.angiotensin II
2.atrial natriuretic peptide (ANR)

Front 565

Describe the stimulus and effects of neural regulation of GFR

Back 565

stimulus: inc. symp. motor output of norep (vasocontstrictor) to blood vessels
effects:
-constriction of afferent arteriole
-reduced blood flow and drop in GFR
-urine output reduced
-more blood available to other parts of body

Front 566

Which area of the tubule reabsorbs the most materials?

Back 566

proximal convoluted tubule

Front 567

What are the 2 reabsorption roots of the tubules?

Back 567

1.paracellular (b/t cells)
2.transcellular (thru cells)

Front 568

What are the 2 ways that water moves by osmosis in the tubules?

Back 568

1.obligatory water reabsorption
2.facultative water reabsorption

Front 569

Describe obligatory water reabsorption in the tubules

Back 569

water is obligated to follow the solutes being reabsorbed (automatic)

Front 570

Describe facultative water reabsorption in the tubules

Back 570

-water is absorbed in the collecting duct under the control of ADH
-some control of water absorption

Front 571

What is the concentration of solutes in the blood?

Back 571

300 milliosmols/L
-same as filtrate leaving proximal convoluted tubule

Front 572

Describe reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule

Back 572

-where most of reabsorption takes place
-all organic molecules reabsorbed
-65% of water reabsorbed here
-diffusion and secondary active transport

Front 573

How does Na and H move thru the proximal convoluted tubule?

Back 573

as an antiporter
Na reabsorbed (in)
H secreted (out)

Front 574

Describe reabsorption in the Loop of Henle

Back 574

-movement of solutes does NOT equal movement of solutes
-water leaves descending limb leading to a higher concentration of solutes at bottom
-solutes leave ascending limb leaving a lower comcentration at top

Front 575

What is happening to the tissue and capillaries during the counter-current mechanism in the Loop of Henle?

Back 575

-they follow the layering pattern of the different concentrations in the loop

Front 576

Which has a higher osmolarity; blood or filtrate?

Back 576

blood

Front 577

Describe reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule

Back 577

-symporters secrete Na and Cl
-Na and Cl reabsorb into the peritubular caps
-by the end, 95% of solutes and water is absorbed into the blood

Front 578

What is secreted out of the proximal convoluted tubule?

Back 578

H+

Front 579

Describe reabsorption in the collecting ducts

Back 579

-cells make final adjustments
-principal cells reabsorb Na
-intercalated cells reabsorb K

Front 580

What do the principal and intercalated cells secrete in the collecting ducts?

Back 580

-principal: K
-intercalated: H

Front 581

What 2 hormones control the facultative reabsorption fo water?

Back 581

1.aldosterone
2.ADH

Front 582

How does aldosterone regulate reabsorption and secretion?

Back 582

-reabsorbs Na and water (indirectly)
-causes principal cells to synthesize more Na/K pumps and channels
-stimulates the secretion (out) of K

Front 583

What happens to the Na in filtrate when aldosterone is high?

Back 583

it goes down

Front 584

How does ADH regulate water reabsorption?

Back 584

-stimulates insertion of special water protein channels
-aquaporin-2
-faster response to low water levels
-direct

Front 585

Describe dilute urine

Back 585

-concentration is less than blood
-low ADH levels
-reabsorbs more solutes and less water
-65-70 milliosmols/L

Front 586

Describe concentrated urine

Back 586

-greater than 300milliosmols/L
-max of 1200 milliosmols/L

Front 587

What 2 factors influence concentrated urine?

Back 587

1.differences in reabsorption of water and solutes in loop of Henle and collecting ducts
2.countercurrent flow of filtrate and blood

Front 588

How does the countercurrent mechanism play a role in dilute urine?

Back 588

as filtrate flows down collecting duct, water exits, leaving solutes in the urine

Front 589

What other systems play a part in waste management?

Back 589

Buffers (bind excess H)
Blood (transport waste)
Liver (metabolic recycling)
Lungs (excrete Co2, heat)
Sweat Glands (eliminate heat, water, salt)
GI Tract (eliminate solid waste, Co2, water, salt, heat)

Front 590

Define electrolyte

Back 590

any substance that separates into ions when dissolved in water

Front 591

What type of bonds hold electrolytes together?

Back 591

ionic

Front 592

What are some important electrolytes?

Back 592

Na
Cl
K

Front 593

Define nonelectrolytes

Back 593

substances where NO ions are produced when dissolved in water

Front 594

What type of bonds hold nonelectrolytes together?

Back 594

covalent

Front 595

What are some examples of nonelectrolytes?

Back 595

-glucose
-proteins
-lipids
-urea

Front 596

What are the 4 functions of electrolytes?

Back 596

1.control of osmosis/fluid in body compartments
2.help maintain acid-base balance
3.carry electrical current (APs)
4.some are cofactors

Front 597

Which ions are disributed mostly out of the cells?

Back 597

Na
Ca
Cl
HCo3

Front 598

Which ions are distributed mostly in the cells?

Back 598

K
Mg
HPo4
SO42
Proteins

Front 599

What is the most abundant extracellular cation?

Back 599

Na
-90% of ECF cations
-1/2 of the osmolarity

Front 600

What important function does Na perform in the body?

Back 600

influences water retention

Front 601

What 4 hormones control Na and what do they do?

Back 601

1.angiotenstin II
2.aldosterone
inc. Na in body
3.ANP
4.ADH
dec. Na in body

Front 602

What is the most important extracellular anion?

Back 602

Cl

Front 603

What 3 hormones control Cl?

Back 603

1.angiotensin II
2.aldosterone
3.ANP

Front 604

What is the most abundant intracellular cation?

Back 604

K

Front 605

What is an important function of K?

Back 605

helps maintain fluid volume in cells

Front 606

What 1 hormone controls K and what does it do?

Back 606

aldosterone
-inc.Na
-dec.K

Front 607

What is the most prevalant phosphate in the cells?

Back 607

HPO4 -2

Front 608

What 3 hormones control HPO4 -2?

Back 608

1.PTH
2.calcitonin
3.calcitriol
-aids in absorption in GI Tract

Front 609

What are 2 important intracellular anions?

Back 609

1.HPO4 -2
2.proteins

Front 610

What are the 3 ways body fluids are exchanged b/t plasma and interstitial fluid?

Back 610

1.vesicular transport
2.diffusion (most dominant)
3.bulk flow

Front 611

What are the 3 ways solutes are exchanged b/t ICF and interstitial fluid?

Back 611

1.diffusion
2.active transport
3.vesicular transport

Front 612

Can water be exchanged between ICF and interstitial fluid? Why or why not?

Back 612

no. the osmostic pressure of ICF and interstitial fluid is even, so there is no net mvmnt of water

Front 613

Why is acid-base balance important?

Back 613

H+ has a large impact on protein shape and structure and pH environment

Front 614

What is the pH of blood?

Back 614

7.35- 7.45

Front 615

What 3 mechanisms control acid-base balance?

Back 615

1.Buffer systems
2.exhalation of CO2
3.Kidneys

Front 616

What is a buffering system?

Back 616

a weak acid and the anion of that weak acid

Front 617

How does a buffering system control acid-base balance?

Back 617

-acts quickly
-removes H+ from solution, but NOT from body
-but limited by concentration of buffer
-prevents rapid and drastic pH changes

Front 618

What are the 3 principle buffering systems?

Back 618

1.Protein Buffer System
2.Carbonic acid-bicarbonate Buffer System
3.Phosphate Buffer System

Front 619

What is the most important buffering system and why?

Back 619

Protein Buffer System
-amino acids
-release or absorb H+ ions

Front 620

In what buffer system do the lungs fall into?

Back 620

carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

Front 621

How does breathing control pH? How fast does it work?

Back 621

-the inc or dec in rate and depth of breathing changes CO2 in the body
-this leads to a change in the pH of the blood
-works within minutes

Front 622

Will the breathing system protect against respiratory induced pH changes? Why or why not?

Back 622

no
-because 1/2 of the buffer system is removed when exhalation occurs (CO2)

Front 623

Does the breathing system eliminate anything else besides Carbonic acid (H2CO3)?

Back 623

no

Front 624

What buffer system is important for intracellular control of pH changes? and why?

Back 624

Phosphate Buffer System
-it is concentrated in IC

Front 625

Where else do phosphates regulate pH?

Back 625

in urine

Front 626

What are fixed acids?

Back 626

non-volatile acids

Front 627

How are fixed acids produced?

Back 627

produced by metabolic rxns that change pH

Front 628

How do kidneys play a role in pH control?

Back 628

-make adjustment to fixed acids by excreting H+ in urine
-only way to eliminate acids other than H2CO3 from body
-slow (hrs-days)

Front 629

What is the volume of urine?

Back 629

1-2 L every 24 hours (varies)

Front 630

What is the color of urine?

Back 630

-yellow or amber
-darker in concentrated urine

Front 631

What is the turbidity of urine?

Back 631

Freshly voided: transparent
After standing: cloudy

Front 632

What can cause fresh urine to be turbid?

Back 632

-microbes
-pus
-ep cells
-crystals

Front 633

What is the odor of urine?

Back 633

Fresh: aromatic
After standing: ammonia (breakdown of urea by bacteria)

Front 634

What is the pH of urine?

Back 634

4.6- 8.0
-high protein= acidic urine
-veg diets= basic urine (alkaline)

Front 635

What is the specific gravity of urine?

Back 635

1.001- 1.035
-low= dilute (65 osm/L)
-high= concentrated (1200 osm/L)

Front 636

Define specific gravity

Back 636

Density of a liquid compared to pure water (1.000)

Front 637

If glucose is present in urine...

Back 637

glucosuria
-diabetes mellitus
-stress

Front 638

If RBCs are present in urine...

Back 638

hematuria
-inflammation or trauma of urinary organs
-irritation from kidney stones
-kidney disease
-polyps/tumors in urinary system

Front 639

If WBCs are present in urine...

Back 639

pyuria
-infection of urinary organs

Front 640

If albumin is present in urine...

Back 640

albuminuria
-high BP
-kidney trauma/disease/inflammation
* trace amounts normal

Front 641

If ketone bodies are present in urine...

Back 641

ketonuria
-ketosis
-starvation
-low carb diet
-diabetes mellitus

Front 642

If cast are present in urine...

Back 642

casts
-hardened clumps in tubules
-albuminuria
-acidic urine
-highly concentrated urine

Front 643

If calculi is present in urine...

Back 643

calculi
-kidney stones
-painful

Front 644

If microbes are present in urine...

Back 644

UTI

Front 645

Can urine have more than 1 disorder?

Back 645

yes

Front 646

If urine has glucosuria and ketonuria...

Back 646

diabetes

Front 647

If urine has cast, calculi, is concentrated, low pH, high specific gravity...

Back 647

kidney stones

Front 648

If urine is red, turbid, hematuria, pyuria, microbes...

Back 648

UTI

Front 649

Define dialysis

Back 649

removal of wasted from the blood by diffusion through a selctively permeable membrane (artificial filtering)

Front 650

When would dialysis be used?

Back 650

if kidneys are unable to function

Front 651

Define hemodialysis

Back 651

directly filters blood by removing wastes and excess electrolytes and fluid and then returning the cleansed blood

Front 652

Define Continuous Abulatory Peritoneal Dialysis (CAPD)

Back 652

-peritoneal dialysis performed at home
-dialysate drained 4x daily and once at night
-person can move freely

Front 653

Define peritoneal dialysis

Back 653

-catheter inserted into peritoneal cavity
-bag of dialysate connected
-dialysate flows in and collects wastes, excess electrolytes, and fluids
-dialysate then drained, discarded and replaced

Front 654

Define blood typing

Back 654

blood typing indicates the type of antigens on the surface of RBCs

Front 655

Define antigen

Back 655

(Ag) a substance that can provoke and immune response and has the ability to react with an antibody.
-usually made of a large complex molecule, ie, protein

Front 656

Define antibody

Back 656

(Ab) a protein produced by plasma cells in response to a specific antigen

Front 657

Why is it necessary to match the donor's and recipient's blood before a blood tranfusion?

Back 657

risk of blood agluttination which leads to the lysing of RBCs

Front 658

How are blood types determined?

Back 658

the presence and absence of certain antigens

Front 659

Which blood type is the universal donor?

Back 659

O-

Front 660

Which blood type is the universal recipient?

Back 660

AB+

Front 661

Which blood types can donate to someone with Rh- blood?

Back 661

Rh-

Front 662

Which blood types can receive from Rh- blood?

Back 662

Rh+

Front 663

What are the Ag and Ab of O+?

Back 663

Ag: Rh
Ab: A,B

Front 664

What are the Ag and Ab for A-?

Back 664

Ag: A
Ab: B,Rh

Front 665

What are the Ag and Ab for B-?

Back 665

Ag: B
Ab: A, Rh

Front 666

What are the Ag and Ab for AB+?

Back 666

Ag: A,B,Rh
Ab: none

Front 667

What are the Ag and Ab for A+?

Back 667

Ag: A,Rh
Ab: B

Front 668

What are the Ag and Ab for B+?

Back 668

Ag: B,Rh
Ab: A

Front 669

What are the Ag and Ab for AB-?

Back 669

Ag: A,B
Ab: Rh

Front 670

What are the Ag and Ab for O-?

Back 670

Ag: none
Ab: A,B,Rh

Front 671

What is Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)?

Back 671

Results from the destruction of the infants RBCs by the Rh Ab produced by the mother. Due to Rh blood type incompatability.

Front 672

How can HDN be prevented?

Back 672

Rogan shot
-soaks up all Rh Ag and prevents production of Rh Ab...?

Front 673

What is the anterior pituitary gland derived from and what type of tissue is it?

Back 673

-derived from mouth
-ep. tissue

Front 674

What is the posterior pituitary gland derived from and what type of tissue is it?

Back 674

-derived from Nervous system
-nervous tissue

Front 675

What do the exocrine glands of the pancreas secrete?

Back 675

digestive enzymes

Front 676

What do the endocrine glands of the pancreas secrete?

Back 676

4 hormones

Front 677

What are the gonads?

Back 677

produce sex cells (sperm and egg)

Front 678

What hormones are associated with the gonads?

Back 678

male: testosterone
female: progesterone and estrogen

Front 679

What are the 3 functions of the testes?

Back 679

1.produce sperm
2.develop sperm
3.produce testosterone

Front 680

What happens in the epididimus?

Back 680

maturation of sperm

Front 681

What is the function of the seminal vesicle?

Back 681

adds secretions to semen
-sugars for ATP
-chemicals to neutralize vagina

Front 682

What makes semen white?

Back 682

prostatic secretions

Front 683

What is the function of the acrosome?

Back 683

enzymes break down cells surrounding the egg

Front 684

Are there any muscles in the penis?

Back 684

no. erectile tissue

Front 685

What are the 3 parts of the uterine (fallopian) tube?

Back 685

1.fimbriae
2.infundibulum
3.isthmus

Front 686

What is the function of the fimbriae of the uterine tube?

Back 686

creates a current to send egg into tube

Front 687

Where does sperm and egg move through?

Back 687

fallopian tube

Front 688

What is the function of the ovary?

Back 688

produces eggs

Front 689

What is the uterus mostly made of?

Back 689

sm. muscle

Front 690

What are the 3 layers of the uterine cavity?

Back 690

1.endometrium
2.myometrium
3.perimetrium

Front 691

What is the function of the endometrium of the uterus?

Back 691

-produces lining for implantation of egg
-highly vascular tissue
-sloughs off= menstrual cycle

Front 692

What is the function of the fundus?

Back 692

sm. muscle at top of uterus provides contractions to push down

Front 693

What is the function of the clitoris and what is it made of?

Back 693

-sensory
-erectile tissue