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78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Blood
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-specialzed CT
-composed of ECM called plasma plus formed elements (blood cells & platelets) -involved in maintenance of acid/base levels, transport of CO2, O2, & nutrients, regulation of body temp, immune responses, & clotting |
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Blood Smear
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-drop of blood spread across glass, dried, & stained with Giemsa
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Functions of Blood
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-Gas Transport
-Acid/Base Levels -Immune Response -Blood Clotting -Body Temperature -Osmotic Pressure |
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Hematocrit
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-estimate of formed elements in relation to total blood volume
-obtained by centrifuging blood samples in calibrated tubes containing heparin -top layer --> plasma -RBC/serum interface --> buffy coat --> highest concentration of WBCs & platelets -bottom layer = RBCs = 40-45% of total blood volume |
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Anemia
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-reduction in number of RBCs
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Polycythemia
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-excess of RBCs
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Serum
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-blood form which clotting elements have bee removed by allowing blood to clot & then centrifuging
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Plasma Proteins
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-Albumin
-Alpha Globulins -Beta Globulins -Gamma-Globulins -Fibrinogens |
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Albumin
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-most abundant plasma protein
-synthesized in liver -responsible for ~80% of total osmotic pressure of plasma |
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Alpha Globulin
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-transport bilirubin & steroids
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Beta Globulins
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-transport iron & copper
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Gamma Globulins
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-immunoglobulins, or antibodies
-synthsized by plasma cells |
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Fibrinogens
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-synthesized in liver
-act in blood clotting -responsible for most of the viscosity of plasma |
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Blood Clotting
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-follows a cascade
-initiated by the synthesis & release of thromboplastin by platelets |
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Blood Cell Formation
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-produced & replaced in blood-forming organs (mostly bone marrow)
-have a limited lifespan |
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Complete Blood Count
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-various cells types fit into narrow ranges
-differential leukocyte count can be performed |
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Differential Leukocyte Count
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-Neutrophils (40-75%)
-Lymphocytes (20-50%) -Monocytes (2-10%) -Eosinophils (1-6%) -Basophils (<1%) |
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Erythrocytes
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-annucleate, acidophilic bi-concave disks
-shaped maintained by a cytoskeleton (includes spectrin) that is connected to the lipid bilayer by ankyrin -essentially membranous bags of hemoglobin & carbonic anhydrase |
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RBC Antigens
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-glycolipids & glycoproteins on surface of RBCs that serve as basis for blood typing
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Erythrocytes sensitive to...
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osmotic pressure
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Hypertonic Environment
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-RBCs shrink
-spike-like protuberances are visible (crenation) |
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Hypotonic Environment
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-RBCs swell & burst (hemolysis)
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Hemolysis
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-can be caused by hypotonic solution or hemolytic agents (hemolysins)
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Shape or Erythrocyte
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-maintained by a set of specific membrane proteins
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Spherocytosis
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-ankyrin or spectrin mutations cause the cytoskeleton to separate from the plasmalemma, adopt spherical shape, & are osmotically fragile
-prone to rupture leading to anemia |
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Splenomegaly
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-enlargement of the spleen
-often caused by spherocytosis -enlarged spleen may be removed to prevent massive bleeding (hemorrhage) that could occur if spleen is damaged by trauma |
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Sickle Cell Anemia
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-mutation in gene coding for beta subunit of hemoglobin
-causes protein to crystallize under low oxygen conditions -causes cresent shaped RBCs which get caught in capillaries & cause localized anoxia & severe pain -primarily affects people of African origin -heterozygous condition appears to protect againt infection by the parasite that causes malaria |
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RBC Flexibility & Elasticity
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-is a function of cell age
-produced in bone marrow & last about 120 days -phagocytized by macrophages when worn out -spleen filters out worn out cells & elastic, healthy RBCs return to circulation |
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Blood Groups
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-a person does not have antigens against his or her own blood group
-AB --> universally receiver since that person does not have anitgens against A or B |
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Agglutination
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-clumping of blood if exposed to certain antibodies
-Type A blood agglutinates if combined with antibodies to A antigen |
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Reticulocytes
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-functional but immature form of the erythrocyte
-make up 1-2% of circulating blood population -slightly larger in diameter than erythrocytes & contain a residual amount of rRNA -urgent conditions may cause a rise in reticulocytes in bloodstream |
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Platelets
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-derived from megakaryocytes (giant precursor cells in bone marrow)
-small annucleate & have 2 regions (granulomere & hyalomere) |
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Granulomere
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-contains mitochondria, glycogen, lysosomes, & 2 types of membrane-bound granules (dense core & alpha granules)
-dense core granules contain serotonin (a vasoconstrictor), ADP, ATP, & calcium -alpha granules contain clotting factors |
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Hyalomere
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-rich in bundles of microtubules & microfilaments
-microtubles maintain inactive platelets' flattened shape -glycocalyx provides necessary adhesive quality for aggregation of platelets |
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Platelets Play a Crucial Role in Blood Clotting (Coagulation)
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-Maintenance of vascular integrity
-Release of blood clotting factors -Clor retraction & dissolution |
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Megakaryocytes
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-very large, nucleated cells
-cytoplasm is filled with spaces called demarcation zones which outline the future individual platelets -located in bone marrow (always near venous sinuses) -extend cytoplasmic processes through walla of venous sinuses which break off to become circulating platelets |
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Leukocytes
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-WBCs --> only true nucleated blood cells
-spherical & have prominent basophilic nuclei -leave blood vesels by process of dispedesis (except for basophils which remains in blood vessel) -in CT, they act in cellular & humoral immune responses to foreign agents |
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Granular Leukocytes
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-Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
-these cells have multilobulated nuclei & specific granules between 10 -12 microns in diameter -short lifespan (1-4 days) |
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Agranular Leukocytes
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-Monocytes & lymphocytes
-these cells habe non-lobulated nuclei & non-specific granules |
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Neutrophils
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-polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)
-represent 60-70% of WBCs -active in phagocytosis of invaders -acitve in acute inflammatory response (appear at site of injury as pain, redness, swelling, & heat) -bind to glycoproteins on the plasmalemma of virally-invaded cells -2-5 lobes in nucleus (commonly 3) -has granules -contain glycogen to survive in anaerobic conditions -short lived (spend 4-8 hours in blood, then migrate into tissue where they live for 4-5 days) -3% of women have Barr Bodies in their neutrophils |
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Neutrophils Specific Granules
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-alkaline phosphatase, collagenase & elastase
-lactoferrin (bacteriostatic agent that bind Fe) -phagocytins (proteins with bacteriocidal activity) -lysozymes (enzymes kills bacteria by hydrolyzing components of their cell walls) -the primary granules are lysosomes --> contain acid hydrolases, antibacterial agents, and myeloperoxidases |
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Phagocytosis
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-neutrophils engulf foreign invaders in membreane-bound organelles
-sepcific granules fuse with and discharge contents into the phagosome -proton pumps in phagosomes lowers pH (pH and oxidizing agents important in phagocytosis) -pus is composed of neutrophils and bacterial & cellular debris |
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Margination of Neutrophils
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-neutrophils have selectins on outer surface which bind to selectin receptros on endothelial cells of blood vessels allowing them to move along
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Diapedisis
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-in response to an inflammatory signals (from basophils & mast cells), neutrophils express integrins that bind to intergrin receptors which anchor the cells
-then migrate between endothelial cells to enter CT |
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Leukocytosis
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-lack of neutrophil integrin CD18 results in poor wound healing because neutrophils can't migrate & instead accumulate in blood
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Alpha-1 Antitrypsin
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-inhibits proteases once a neutrophil migrates through into CT
-absence of this inhibitor --> chornically high levels of elastase (can lead to emphysema) |
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Eosinophils
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-comprise 2-4% of WBCs
-have bi-lobed nuclei -have coarse, acidophillic (cherry red) granules |
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Eosinophil (necessary for)
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-phagocytosis of antigens/antibody complexes (in asthma, hay fever, & other allergies)
-destruction of invading parasites -produce Histminase & Arylsulfatase |
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Coricosteroids (effect on eosinophils)
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-produce a rapid drop in number of blood eosinophils --> reducing inflammation
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Major Basic Protein
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-comprise ~50% of the protein core of eosinophils specific granules
-function in parasite destruction |
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Neutrophils & Eosinophils (active)
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-circulate in blood
-but active when they enter CT |
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Basophils
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-make up less than 1% of total leukocyte count
-contain coarse, basophilic specific granules -bi-lobed nucleus -involved in immediate and delayed hypersensitivity reactions -mediate anaphylaxis (acute reaction to drugs, food, or other foreign agents) |
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Development of sensitivity underlying anaphylactic reactions
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REVIEW PG. 13 - LECTURE 10
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Basophils Specific Granules
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-Heparin --> powerful anticoagulant
-Histamine --> quickly & drastically increase the permeability of blood vessels, causes vasodilation, and causes smooth muscle contraction in bronchi -Leukotrienes (SRS-A) --> for slow, sustained contractions of smooth muscle |
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Mast Cells vs. Basophils
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-Mast cells found in CT; Basophils found in bloodstream
-Basophil is bi-lobed -2 cell types arise from different stem cells in bone marrow -Contents of their specific granules ate different |
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Lymphocytes
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-make up 20-30% of WBCs
-smallest are ~size of RBCs (7-8 microns in diameter) -mediate immunological responses -T-Cells & B-Cells |
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T-Cells
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-Thymus-differentiated
-most numerous lymphocytes -important for cell-mediated immune reactions -significant decrease in helper cells in HIV |
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B-Cells
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-lymphocyte
-upon activation, migrate into CT & transform into plasma cells which manufacture antibodies responsible for humoral (antibody-mediated) immune reactions -Some activated B-;ymphocytes give rise to memory B cells --> maintain and individuals immunity for an extended time |
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Monocytes
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-3-8% of total leukocytes
-largest in size of peripheral blood elements (17 micron diameter) -kidney-shaped nucleus -migrate into tissue to become active macrophages -macrophages are part of diffuse lymphoid nodules which are found in many organs --> lung (alveolar macrophages), liver (Kupffer cells), CT, spleen, bone marrow -monocytes/macrophages play an essential role in recognition & presentation of antigens to lymphocytes during immune responses, and in antigen disposal |
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Anemias
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-decrease in hemoglobin levels either due to a drop in RBC populations (due to hemorrhage) or to the inability to manufacture hemoglobin itself
-Vitamin B12 Deficiency is a common cause of anemia (necessary for heme biosynthesis) |
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Vitamin B12 Deficiency
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-common cause of anemia
-necessary for heme biosynthesis |
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Thrombocytopenia
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-low platelet count, probably due to autoimmunity against platelets
-this condition leads to easy bruising and an increased risk of stroke (bleeding from blood vessels in the brain) |
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Leukemias
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-uncontrolled proliferation (cancer) of various leukocytes or their immature precursors
-these precursors eventually spill out into the peripheral blood |
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Erythroblastosis Fetalis
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-Several different "Rh" antigens on erythrocytes from the basis for the Rh blood grouping
-EF is caused by an immune attack on erythrocytes of an Rh+ fetus by anti-Rh antibodies of the mother -This occurs when an Rh- woman has had a previous Rh+ child and therefore has developed antibodies against the Rh series of RBC surface antigens |
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Hemophilia
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-Hereditary absence of clotting factor VIII, passed by mothers to their male children
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AIDS
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-HIV virus infects & kills T-helper cells
-as a result, infected individuals eventually become incapable of mounting immune responses against bacterial or viral infections |
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SSRIs (Specific Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)
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-Drugs used primarily as anit-depressants
-also used as illegal euphorics (Ecstasy) -inhibit serotonin uptake by neurons and platelets -depletion of serotonin from platelets causes decreased coagulation ability, which leads to increased clotting time |
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Neutrophils (Peripheral Blood Cell Granules)
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-Alkaline Phosphatase
-Collagenase, Elastase -Lactoferrin -Phagocytins -Lysozymes |
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Eosinophils (Peripheral Blood Cell Granules)
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-Major Basic Proteins
-Hydrolytic Enzymes -Histaminase -Arylsulfatase |
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Basophils (Peripheral Blood Cell Granules)
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-Heparin
-Histamine -Leukotrienes (SRS-A) -Serotonin |
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Platelets (Peripheral Blood Cell Granules)
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-Serotonin
-ADP -ATP -Blood-Clotting Factors |
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Erythrocyte (Diameter/Population/Lifespan)
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-7.5 microns
-5 million/mL (male) -4.5 million/mL (female) -120 days |
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Platelet (Diameter/Population/Lifespan)
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-3 microns
-200,000-400,000/mL -4-6 days |
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Monocyte (Diameter/Population/Lifespan)
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-17 microns
-3-8% of leukocytes -long lifespan |
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Lymphocyte (Diameter/Population/Lifespan)
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-7-8 microns
-20-30% of leukocytes -variable lifespan |
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Neutrophil (Diameter/Population/Lifespan)
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-10-12 microns
-60-70% of leukocytes -1-4 days |
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Eosinphils
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-10-12 microns
-2-4% of leukocytes -1-4 days |
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Basophils
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-10-12 microns
-0-1% of leukocytes -1-4 days |
