Histology

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Common stain for the nuclear region

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hematoxylin (basic stain)

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Common stain for the cytoplasmic region

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eosin (acidic stain)

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Obtaining a minute part of the tissue for a sample

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Biopsy

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Removal of whole or part of a tissue or organ

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Surgical excision

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Tissue sample after death of subject

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Postmortem dissection

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Stopping all biological activitiy

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Fixation

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Denatures proteins

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Heat fixation

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This type of fixation involves pumping substance through the body and usually results in dead subject

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Perfusion

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This type of fixation involves soaking the specimen in twenty times its volume and takes a long time

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Immersion

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A type of fixation that removes water gradually usually using alcohol

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Dehydration

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Fixation using a waxy substance that that allows the tissue to become solidified

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Embedding

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Primitive cell, bacteria

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Prokaryotic cell

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This type of cell has no membrane and no true membrane bound organells and simple chromosomes

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Prokaryotic cell

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Cells of higher plants and organisms

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Eukaryotic Cell

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Cell with well defined membrane, complex chromosomes and a whole host of membrane bound organelles.

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Eukaryotic cells

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Fundamental substance from which all living things are made

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Protoplasm

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Composition of protoplasm

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Composition of protoplasm

-water 75%
-protein -> Amino Acids -> 10-20%
-lipids -> energy -> 2-3%
-carbs -> energy 1%
-salts -> balance 1%

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analogous structure to the cell wall found in plant cells that is found in animal cells. Formed by oligosaccharides

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Glycocalyx

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The correct theory of cells is the

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Fluid mosaic model

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Three dimensional network of tubules - -functions: lipid synth and detox- exists in an acetic env. -organs that don't have a well developed rough ER.

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Smooth ER

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Function of Rough ER -

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Protein synthesis - basophilic environment, caused by the ribosomes

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translucent area close to the nucleus. Command center for cell division

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Centrosomes

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Fillaments of the cytoplasmic region

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1. Microfilaments (think filament) - actin (6nm)
2. Intermediate Filaments (tono filament)
a. Keratin (hardening), neuro filaments, glial filaments (8-11nm)
3. Thick filaments -
a. myosin (15nm)
b. Microtubules (25nm) - lock end to end to form spindle rays for cell division

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Example and size of a Microfilaments (think filament) -

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actin (6nm), Function- contractile and may aid in motility
Location - found in various embryonic epithelium that undergo rapid cell shape changes. ex. intracellular muscle

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Another name for Intermediate Filaments

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(tono filament)/ Keratin, Neurofilaments, glial filaments

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Examples of Intermediate Filaments (tono filament)

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Keratin (hardening), neuro filaments, glial filaments (8-11nm)
Function - maintain cell shape, form spindle apparatus during mitotic division, form the core of cilia, flagella and sperm tails

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Thick filaments -

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myosin (15nm)
b. Microtubules (25nm) - lock end to end to form spindle rays for cell division

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a single layer of cells that functions in
diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, and absorption.

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Simple Epithelium

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These types of cells are thin, and this
allows for the rapid passage of substances through them.

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Squamous

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cells are as tall as they are wide and are
shaped like cubes or hexagons. They may have microvilli
at their apical surface and function in either
secretion or absorption.

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Cuboidal

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cells are much taller than they are wide, like
columns, and protect underlying tissues. Their apical surfaces may have cilia or microvilli, and they often are specialized for secretion and absorption.

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Columnar

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found in parts of the body
where filtration (kidneys) or diffusion (lungs) are priority
processes and not found in body areas that are subjected to
wear and tear.

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Simple squamous

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simple squamous epithelium that lines the heart,
blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels is known as

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endothelium

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the type of simple squamous epithelium that forms the epithelial layer of serous membranes, such as the peritoneum, pleura, or pericardium, is called

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mesothelium

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type of epithelium
is found in organs such as the thyroid gland and kidneys
and performs the functions of secretion and absorption.

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Simple cuboidal

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Microvilli,

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microscopic
fingerlike projections, increase the surface area of the
plasma membrane thus increasing the rate of
absorption by the cell. A type of simple columnar

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Goblet cells

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are modified columnar
cells that secrete mucus, a slightly sticky fluid, at their apical
surfaces. Before it is released, mucus accumulates in the upper
portion of the cell, causing that area to bulge out. A type of simple columnar

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pseudostratified columnar epithelium

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appears
to have several layers because the nuclei of the cells are
at various depths. Even though all the cells are
attached to the basement membrane in a single layer, some
cells do not extend to the apical surface.

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pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium,

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the cells that extend to the surface either secrete mucus (goblet
cells) or bear cilia

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keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium,

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a tough layer of keratin is deposited in
the apical layer and several layers deep to it.

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Keratin

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is a
tough protein that helps protect the skin and underlying
tissues from microbes, heat, and chemicals.

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Nonkeratinized
stratified squamous epithelium,

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which is found, for example,
lining the mouth, does not contain keratin in the apical
layer and several layers deep to it and remains moist.

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Lines heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, air sacs of lungs, glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule of kidneys, and
inner surface of the tympanic membrane (eardrum); forms epithelial layer of serous membranes (mesothelium), such as the
peritoneum.

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Simple squamous ep

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Function: Filtration, diffusion, osmosis, and secretion in serous membranes

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Simple squamous ep

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Location: Lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands, makes up the secreting portion of some glands such as
the thyroid gland, covers surface of ovary, lines anterior surface of capsule of the lens of the eye, and forms the pigmented
epithelium at the posterior surface of the eye. –

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Simple cuboidal Ep.

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Function of simple cuboidal ep -

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Function: Secretion and absorption.

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Lines most of the gastrointestinal tract (from the stomach to the anus), ducts of many glands,
and gallbladder. -

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Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium

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Lines a few portions of upper respiratory tract, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, some paranasal sinuses, and
central canal of spinal cord. -

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Ciliated columnar epithelium

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Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium lines

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lines the airways of most of upper respiratory tract;

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pseudostratified
nonciliated columnar epithelium

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larger ducts of many glands, epididymis, and part of male urethra.

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Function of Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

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Secretion and movement of mucus by ciliary action (ciliated);

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Function of Pseudostratified nonciliated columnar epithelium

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absorption and protection (nonciliated).

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Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin; nonkeratinized variety lines wet surfaces, such as lining of the
mouth, esophagus, part of epiglottis, part of pharynx, and vagina, and covers the tongue.

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Stratified squamous ep.

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Function of Stratified squamous

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Protection

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Ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands and part of male urethra. -

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Stratified cuboidal ep

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Fucntion of stratified cuboidal ep

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Protection and limited secretion and absorption.

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Lines part of urethra, large excretory ducts of some glands such as esophageal glands, small areas in anal mucous
membrane, and a part of the conjunctiva of the eye. –

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Stratified coliumnar ep

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Function of stratified columnar ep.

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Protection and secretion.

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Lines urinary bladder and portions of ureters and urethra. –

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transitional

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Function of transitional -

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Permits distention

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Pinocytosis

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cell drinking

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phagocytosis

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cell eating

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Cytoplasmic matrix - AKA Ground substance

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structureless medium
contains fibrillar components

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Inclusions

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nonliving cell products - temporary constituents - fat, pigmented granuoles

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Cell Membrane

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AKA plasma membrane or plasmalemma

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Endoplasmic Reticulum

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AKA Chromoidial Substance or Ergastoplasm

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Flat, sack like structures in the rough ER

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cisternae

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Function of Rough ER

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protein sythesis

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Fragments of rough ER referred to as

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microsomes

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Cristae

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pleats in the inner mitochondrial membrane tha function to increase surface areas and efficiency

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Matrix granule

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most conspicuous item in the mitochondrial matrix

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The cell picks up a foreign particle by phagocytosis and the resulting vacuole is a

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phagosome

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Heterophagic Vacuole or phagolysosome

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the resulting vacuole when A lysosome is combined with a phagosome

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morphogenesis, cell death autolysis

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occurs in many disease processes due to the release of lysosomes. Also apoptosis

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Micro-Bodies

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AKA Peroxisome

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Micro- Bodies

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Small membrane lined vesicles, smaller than lysosomes, contain oxidative enzymes

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Micro-bodies

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protect the cell against hydrogen peroxie generated during oxidation
Found primarily in liver and kidney cells

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Centrosome AKA centrosphere or cell center

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contains centrioles
lies near nucleus
center of activity or cell division

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Centrioles

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when migrate to the cell surface, becomes a basal body AKA Kinetosome which gives rise to cilium or flagelum

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Centrioles

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Serve as centers of organiztion fo mircrotubules
found in most cells

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Tubulin

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protein that makes up microtubules

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Neucleoplasm inside the nuclear region of the cell

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AKA Sap or Karyoplasm

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Heterochromatin

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during interphase is coiled or condensed

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Euchromatin

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during interphase is dispersed

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Function of chromatin

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regulate metabolic activities of the cell

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Nuclear division

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karyokinesis

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division of cytoplasm

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cytokinesis

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Interphase

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process of synthesizing DNA
Structures develop
chromosomes replicate
NOT a resting phase

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Prophase

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chromosomes become visible
nucleolus will disappear
centrioles undergo reduplication and migrate to opposite poles of nucleus
Nuclear membrane begins to breakdow and disappear

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Metaphase

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Begins with the appearance of spindle fibers
chromosomes gather in the center along the equatorial plate
two types of fiber occur
-continuous fiber
-chromosomal fiber
Centromere AKA kinetochore

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Anaphase

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doubling of the centromere
separation of the chromatid from each chromosome
cleavage furrow starts to appear

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Telophase

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cleavage furro continues
nuclear membrane reforms
chromosome again uncoils and becomes indistinct
nucleolus reforms
At the end- two daughter cells with identical chromosomes of parent

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Cell Cycle - S phase

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Period of active DNA Synthesis
Lasts 6-8 hours
30-40% of cycle

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Cell Cycle - G1 phase

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period of active RNA and protein synthesis
Both the nucleus and cytoplasm of daughter cells enlarge
30-40% of cycle

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Cell Cycle - G2 phase

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period of no DNA synthesis
other preparations for division take place
10-20% of cycle

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Cell Cycle - M phase

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structural events which occur during mitosis
Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis

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Cell Cycle - These all occur during interphase

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G1, G2, S

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First mitotic division

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chromosome number is reduced - Reductional Division

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Second mitotic division

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Equatorial Division-

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Five phases of prophase I of meosis

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Leptotene
Zygotene
Pchytene
Diplotene
Diakenesis

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Leototene

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chromosomes are thin and threadlike

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Zygotene

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homologous chromosomes begin to pair and continues throughout this phase

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Pachytene

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shortening of the chromosomes (1/4 of their length in leptotene)
pairing of chromosomes are completed

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Diplotene

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intimiately paired chromosomes begin to repel each other and separate
chromosomes do nt completely separate, they remain joined at certain ponits wher two of the 4 chromatids form an X, the chiasmata
Exchange of genetic material
Nucleolous breaks down

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Diakinesis

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chrmosomes at max condensation
nuclear membrane breaks down

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Anaphase 1 of meiosis

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Homolougues break down

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Interphase 2

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Interkinesis No DNA replication

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Prophase 2

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Spindles appear as nuclear membrane breaks down

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Metaphase 2

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chromatid pairs of chromosomes line up on the equator

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Annaphase 2

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Centromeres duplicate and divide
chromatids of chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles

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Telophase 2

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spindles disappear
nuclear membrane reappears
cell membrane furrow forms
four cells result - haploid

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Metacentric chromosome

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arms approximately equal in length
centromere occurs in the middle of the chromosome

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Submetracentric chromsome

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unequal arms - L shaped

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Acrocentric chromosome

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chromosme is described as rod shaped, having a very small arm at one end.

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Telocentric

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described as rod-like and having a centromere situated at the proximal end

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karyotype

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the name given to the group of characteristics that identifies a particular chromosomal set.