• Shuffle
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Alphabetize
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Front First
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Both Sides
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Read
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
Reading...
Front

Card Range To Study

through

image

Play button

image

Play button

image

Progress

1/442

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

442 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
The human skeletal system has how many bones?
206 separate bones (+ associated cartilages)
What are the two divisions of the skeletal system?
1. Appendicular
2. Axial
The axial systems consists of the bones of the?
1. Skull
2. Thorax
3. Vertebral column
1. What percentage of the bones in skeletal system are in the axial skeleton?

2. How many bones are in the axial skeleton?
1. 40%

2. 80
How many bone are in the following?
1. Skull
2. Bones associated with skull
3. Vertebral column
4. Thoracic cage
1. 22
2. 6 auditory ossicles and 1 hyoid bone
3. 24 vertebrae, 1 sacrum and 1 coccyx
4. 24 ribs and 1 sternum
What is the function of the axial skeleton?
-Support and protect organs in the ventral body cavities
-House special sense organs for taste, smell, hearing and balance
-Provide extensive surface arae for attachment of muscles
What are the major functions of the muscles that attach to the axial skeleton?
1. Adjust positions of the head, neck and trunk
2. Perform respiratory movements
3. Stabilize or position structure of appendicular skeleton
How many bones are in the appendicular skeleton?
126
1. How many bones are in the skull?

2. How many of them form the braincase?

3. How many are associated with the face?
1. 22

2. 8

3. 14
What is the function of the cranium?
Surround and protect the brain
What is the cranial cavity?
A fluid-filled chamber that cushions and supports the brain.
List the bones of the cranium (how many).
1. Occipital (1)
2. Parietal (2)
3. Frontal (1)
4. Temporal (2)
5. Sphenoid (1)
6. Ethmoid (1)
What attaches to the inner surface of the cranium?
1. Blood vessels
2. Nerves
3. Membranes that stabilize the position of the brain.
What attaches to the outer surface of the cranium?
Muscles that move
-eyes
-jaw
-head
What is the function of the specialized joint between the occipital bone and the first spinal vertebra?
Stabilize positions of the cranium and vertebral column while permitting a considerable range of head movement.
List the bones of the face (how many)
1. Maxillae (2)
2. Palatine bones (2)
3. Nasal bone (2)
4. Inferior nasal conchae (2)
5. Zygomatic bones (2)
6. Lacrimal bones (2)
7. Vomer (1)
8. Mandible (1)
What are the functions of the facial bones?
1. Protect and support the entrances to the digestive and respiratory tract.
2. Provide areas for attachment of muscles that control facial expressions and assist in the manipulation of food.
What kind of joints are between skull bones? What are they called?
Synarthrosis (no movement) fibrous joints called sutures.
What kind of tissue holds bones together at sutures?
Dense fibrous connective tissue.
What are the five major sutures of the skull? (What bones are they between)
1. Lambdoid (occipital and parietal bones)
2. Sagittal (between parietal bones)
3. Coronal (frontal and parietal bones)
4. Squamous (temporal and parietal bones)
5. Frontonasal (frontal and nasal bones)
Which suture may contain a sutural (Wormian bone)?
Lambdoid suture

Note: May range in size from a grain to a quarter
1. What is another name from the "skullcap"?

2. What bones form it?
1. Calvaria or cranial vault

2. Occipital, parietal (form major part of calvaria) and frontal bones.
What is the significance of ridges and foramina in the skull?
The mark either the attachment of a muscle or the passage of nerves and blood vessels.
1. Where is the foramen magnum located?

2. What is the function of the foramen magnum?
1. Inferior surface of occipital bone

2. Connect cranial cavity with spinal cavity (enclosed by the vertebral column)
What is the significance of the occipital condyles?
Skull articulates with the first cervical vertebra here.
Where do muscles that move the head and stabilize the atlanto-occipital joint attach?
1. Occipital crest
2. Occipital protuberance
3. Inferior and Superior nuchal lines
What is the significance of the interior surfaces, grooves and ridges of the cranium bones?
Surfaces: follow contours of the brain
Grooves: follow the path of major vessels
Ridges: mark attachment of membranes (meninges) that stabilize the position of the brain.
Which bone forms the forehead?
Frontal bone
1. At birth how many frontal bones are present?

2. How many frontal bones are present in an adult?
1. 2

2. 1
1. What is the suture between the two frontal bones in children called?

2. When does this suture usually disappear?

3. Does evidence of the above suture remain in adults?
1. Frontal (metopic) suture

2. By age 8

3. The frontal bones of adults often retain traces of the suture line.
What bone feature on the frontal bone supports the eyebrows?
Superciliary arches.
What are the two "parts" of the frontal bone?
1. Squamous part

2. Orbital part
What bone feature on the frontal bone marks the location of the lacrimal (tear) gland?
Lacrimal fossa.
What prevents contact between the delicate brain tissue and the bones of the cranium?
Membranes called the meninges.
When do frontal sinuses usually develop?
Around age 6
Do all people have frontal sinuses?
No. Some people never develop them.
Which skull bones forms the only articulations with the mandible?
The temporal bones
What are the "parts" of the temporal bones?
1. Squamous part
2. Tympanic part
3. Petrous part
What bones (and their bone features) form the zygomatic arch or cheekbone?
1. Temporal bone (zygomatic process)
2. Zygomatic bone (temporal process)
What are the two bone features on the temporal bone that mark the site of the articulation with the mandible?
1. Mandibular fossa
2. Articular tubercle
What "part" of the temporal bone surrounds the external acoustic meatus (external auditory canal)?
Tympanic part
What does the external acoustic meatus end at?
The tympanic membrane (eardrum).

Note: The tympanic membrane exists only in life and disintegrates during preparation of a dried skull.
What is the most massive "part" of the temporal bone?
Petrous part
What is the function of the petrous part of the temporal bone?
Surround and protects the sense organs of hearing and balance.
What is the function of the muscles that attach to the mastoid process?
Rotate or extend the head
Does the mastoid process have sinuses? What are they called?
Mastoid has interconnected sinuses called mastoid air cells.
What is mastoditis?
Infection of mastoid air cells.

Note: Usually spreads from infection in respiratory tract
Where do muscles that support the hyoid bone attach on the temporal bone?
The styloid process.
Where are the auditory ossicles located (bone feature and bone)?
The tympanic cavity of the temporal bone.
What is another name for the tympanic cavity of the temporal bone?
Middle ear
What is the function of the internal acoustic meatus?
1. Carries blood vessels and nerves to the inner ear
2. Carries facial nerve to stylomastoid foramen
Which bone (and bone part) are the internal and external acoustic meatus located in?
Temporal bone
-Petrous part (internal acoustic meatus)
-Tympanic part (external acoustic meatus)
What cranial bones does the sphenoid articulate with?
Every other cranial bone
What part of the cranium does the sphenoid make?
The floor of the cranium
What bone acts as a bridge uniting the cranial and facial bones?
The sphenoid
What bone acts as a brace, strengthening the sides of the skull?
The sphenoid
What cranial bone looks like a giant bat?
The sphenoid
What is the recess in the sphenoid bone that cradles the pituitary gland?
Hypophyseal fossa in sella turcica
What is the bony enclosure in the sphenoid that looks like a "Turkish saddle"?
Sella turcica
What bone forms the anteromedial floor of the cranium?
The ethmoid
What are the three parts of the ethmoid?
1. The cribriform plate
2. The ethmoidal labyrinth
3. The perpendicular plate
What nerves pass through the foramina in the cribriform plate?
Olfactory nerves
Which bone contains the superior nasal conchae and middle nasal conchae?
The ethmoid
Name the three nasal conchae
1. Superior nasal conchae
2. Middle Nasal conchae
3. Inferior nasal conchae
The ethmoidal labyrinth is an interconnected network of ethmoidal air cells (True/False)
True
Do the air cells of the ethmoidal labyrinth open into the nasal cavity?
Yes
What kind of secretion do ethmoidal air cells produce? What is their function?
Mucous secretions; they flush the surfaces of the nasal cavities.
What is the function of the nasal conchae
To break up airflow, creating swirls and eddies that slow air movement. This provides addition time for warming, humidification and dust removal before the air reaches more delicate portion of the respiratory tract.
What makes up the nasal septum?
1. Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone
2. Vomer
3. A piece of hyaline cartilage
Where are olfactory receptors located on the ethmoid?
On epithelium covering the
1. Cribriform plate (inferior surface)
2. Superior nasal conchae (medial surface)
3. Perpendicular plate (superior portion)
The cranium floor is horizontal (True/False)
False; it descends in two steps anterior to posterior.
Name the three cranial fossa on the cranial floor. What bones form them? What do they cradle?
1. Anterior cranial fossa - frontal, ethmoid and sphenoid - frontal lobes of the cerebral hemisphere
2. Middle cranial fossa - sphenoid, temporal, parietal - temporal lobes of cerebral hemisphere, diencephelon and mesencephalon (anterior portion of brain stem)
3. Posterior cranial fossa - occipital, temporal, parietal - occipital lobes of cerebral hemisphere, cerebelum, pons and medulla oblangata (posterior brain stem)
Which of the five senses would be affected if the cribriform plate of the ethmoid failed to form?
The sense of smell (olfaction)
What is the function of the auditory ossicles?
Transfer sound vibrations from the eardrum toward the receptor complex in the inner ear, which provides the sense of hearing.
What are the largest facial bones?
The maxillae
What bones form the upper jaw?
The maxillae
What facial bones do the maxillae articulate with?
All facial bones except for the mandible
What maxilla bone feature contain teeth?
Alveolar processes
1. What bones form the superior orbital fissure?

2. What bones form the inferior orbital fissure?
1. Sphenoid (forms superior part only)

2. Sphenoid and maxilla
What bones are the following located in?

1. Supra-orbital foramen
2. Infra-orbital foramen
1. Frontal bone

2. Maxillae
What are the largest sinuses in the skull?
Maxillary sinuses
What bones (and their bone features) form the hard palate (bony roof) of the mouth?
1. The maxilla (palatine processes) form the anterior part

2. Palatine bones (horizontal plate) form the posterior part
What shape are the palatine bones?
L-shaped
What are the two main bone features of the palatine bone?
1. Horizontal plate
2. Perpendicular plate
The nasal bones articulate with what other bones?
1. Frontal bone (superiorly)
2. Maxillae (laterally)
What are the scroll like facial bones?
Inferior nasal conchae
What opening in the zygomatic bones carries a sensory nerve to the cheek?
Zygomaticofacial foramen
What are the smallest bones in the skull?
Lacrimal bones
1. What bones feature encloses the tear duct?

2. What bones form this feature?
1. Nasolacrimal canal

2. Lacrimal bone and the maxilla
1. The nasal septum separates the:

2. The cartilaginous extension of the nasal septum separates the:
1. Right and left nasal cavities

2. External nares
What bone forms the lower jaw?
The mandible
What are the two main subdivisions of the mandible?
1. Body (horizontal)
2. Rami of the mandible (ascending)
What bone feature of the mandible articulates with the madibular fossa of the temporal bone?
The head
What is the joint between the temporal bone and mandible called?
Temporomandibular joint
What is the disadvantage of the high mobility of the lower jaw?
Forceful anterior or lateral movements of the mandible can easily dislocate the jaw.
1. What is the most forceful muscle involve in closing the jaw?

2. Where does it attach on the mandible?
1. Temporalis muscle

2. Cornoid process
Which mandible bone feature contain the teeth?
Alveolar part
Which opening does the nerve to dentists anesthetize before working on the lower teeth pass through in the mandible?
Mandibular foramen
Both cranial and facial bones form the orbital and nasal complexes (True/False)
True
What are orbits?
Bony recesses that enclose and protect the eye.
What are the contents of the orbit?
1. Eye
2. Lacrimal gland
3. Adipose tissue
4. Muscles that move the eye
5. Blood vessels
6. Nerves
How many bones make up the orbital complex? List them
Seven
1. Frontal bone
2. Maxilla
3. Zygomatic bone
4. Lacrimal bone
5. Ethmoid
6. Palatine bone
7. Sphenoid
What bones make up the rim of the orbital complex?
1. Frontal (superior)
2. Maxilla (medial and inferior)
3. Zygomatic (lateral and inferior)
What bones form major parts of the floor, roof, lateral wall and posterior wall of the orbital complex?
Floor: The maxilla
Roof: Frontal bone
Lateral wall: Zygomatic bone
Posterior wall: The sphenoid
What is the nasal complex?
The nasal complex includes bones and cartilage that enclose the nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses.
What are paranasal sinuses?
Air spaces connected to the nasal cavities.
The nasal complex extend from ____ to ____
External nares to the internal nares.
What bones make up the nasal complex?
1. Frontal
2. Sphenoid
3. Ethmoid
4. Vomer
5. Lacrimal
6. Maxillae
7. Inferior nasal conchae
8. Nasal
What bones form the superior wall of the nasal complex?
1. Frontal
2. Sphenoid
3. Ethmoid
What bones form the lateral wall of the nasal complex?
1. Maxilla
2. Lacrimal
3. Ethmoid
4. Inferior nasal conchae
What bones support the bridge of the nose?
1. Nasal
2. Maxillae
What bones contain the paranasal sinuses (name the sinus)?
1. Frontal (frontal)
2. Sphenoid (sphenoidal)
3. Maxillae (maxillary)
4. Ethmoid (ethmoidal)
What is the function of the paranasal sinuses?
1. Lighten skull bones
2. Produce mucus
3. Resonate during sound production
What is the function of the mucus formed by the paranasal sinuses? Why is this important?
The mucus from sinuses drains into the nasal cavities where it:
1. Humidified and warms air
2. Traps foreign particles like dust and microorganisms that are then swallowed.

This is important to protect the delicate exchange faces of the fragile lung tissue portions of the respiratory tract.
What moves the mucus from the nasal cavities to the throat where it is swallowed?
Ciliated epithelium
Where is the hyoid bone located in relation to the skull?
Lies inferior to the skull.
What ligament is the hyoid bone suspended by?
Stylohyoid ligament.
The hyoid bone is in direct contact with the skull (True/False)
False.
What is the significance of the hyoid bone?
Serves as a base for several muscles concerned with movements of the tongue and larynx.
What forms the connection between the hyoid and other skeletal structures?
Muscles and ligaments.
What bone feature of the hyoid help support the larynx and serve as the base for the muscles that move the tongue?
The greater horns.
Where does the stylohyoid ligament attach on the hyoid?
The lesser horms
What is suspended from the stylohyoid ligament?
-Hyoid
-Larynx
What stimuli do the mucus membranes of the paranasal sinuses respond to?
1. Sudden changes in temperature or humidity
2. Irritating vapor
3. bacterial or viral infections

Note: All accelerate mucus production
What causes headaches and feelings of pressure in the facial bone during a viral or bacterial infection of the nasal cavity?
The infection causes inflammation of the mucus membranes of the nasal cavity. As swelling occurs, the communicating passageways narrow and mucus drainage slows causing congestion which leads to headaches and feeling of pressure.
What is sinus inflammation and congestion called?
Sinusitis
Are paranasal sinuses part of the nasal cavity?
Yes. They are extensions of the nasal cavity and open into it.
Which sinuses most often suffer from sinusitis? Why?
The maxillary sinuses because gravity does little to assist in mucus drainage from them.
1. What can cause chronic sinusitis?

2. What does this condition result from?

3. How is it corrected?
1. A deviated (nasal) septum.

2. Developmental abnormalities or injuries to nose.

3. Surgery
Where is the nasal septum most often bent in the condition called deviated septum?
The junction between bony and cartilaginous regions.
Why does septal deviation often cause recurring sinusitis?
Blocks drainage of one or more sinuses, producing chronic cycles of infection and inflammation.
The skull forms from a single center of ossification (True/False)
False. Many different centers of ossification are involved.
Fusion is not complete in which bones of the skull at birth? (How many elements are in each bone at birth?)
1. Sphenoid (several)
2. Temporal bone (several)
3. Frontal bone (2)
4. Occipital bones (4)
The sphenoid begins at how many ossification centers?

a. 6
b. 10
c. 14
d. 20
c. 14
What connects the cranial bones at birth?
Fibrous connective tissue.
Close to birth the bones of the skull enlarge faster than the brain (True/False)
False. The brain enlarges faster.
What is the advantage of the fibrous connective tissue connection of the cranium at birth?
The connections are quite flexible and can distort without damage. Such distortion normally occurs during delivery and eases the passage of the infant along the birth canal.
What are the large fibrous regions between the cranial bones in infants called?
Fontanels
List the fontanels in an infant's skull. Where are they located? Which is the largest?
1. Anterior fontanel (largest): intersection of frontal, sagittal and coronoal sutures
2. Posterior fontanel: junction between lambdoid and sagittal sutures
3. Sphenoidal fontanels: Junction between squamous and coronal sutures
4. Mastoid fontanels: junction between squamous and lambdoid sutures
When does most significant growth of the skull occur?
Before age 5
When does the brain stop growing and the cranial sutures develop?
Age 5
How is the cranium of a young child different from the cranium of an adult in size?
It is relatively larger.
1. What bones forms the jugular foramen in the skull?

2. Which bones form the foramen lacerum?
1. Occipital and temporal bones

2. Occipital and temporal bones
Which bone of the skull has the carotid canal?
Temporal bone
Which bone has the internal and external acoustic meatus?
Temporal bone
Which bone of the skull has the optic canal?
The sphenoid
Which bone of the skull has the hypoglossal canal?
Occipital bone
Where is the hypophyseal fossa located? What is it significance?
Sella turcica of the sphenoid. It cradles the pituitary gland.
Which skull bone has the mylohyoid line?
Mandible
Define the following anatomical terms:
1. Process
2. Ramus
1. Process: Any projection or bump
2. Ramus: An extension of a bone making an angle to the rest of the structure.
Define the following anatomical terms:
1. Tubercle
2. Crest
3. Line
4. Spine
1. Tubercle: A small rounded projection
2. Crest: A prominent ridge
3. Line: A low ridge
4. Spine: A pointed process
Define the following anatomical terms:
1. Head
2. Condyle
1. Head: The expanded articular end of an epiphysis, often separated from the shaft by a narrower neck
2. Condyle: A smooth, rounded articular process
Define the following anatomical terms:
1. Foramen
2. Fissure
3. Meatus or canal
4. Sinus or antrum
1. Foramen: A rounded passageway for blood vessels and/or nerves
2. Fissure: An elongated cleft (space or opening)
3. Meatus or canal: A passageway through the substance of a bone
4. Sinus or antrum: A chamber within a bone, normally filled with air
Where does the axial musculature arise?
On the axial skeleton
What is the function of the axial musculature?
1. Positions head and vertebral column
2. Assists in breathing by moving the rib cage
Axial musculature plays a role in the movement or stabilization of the pectoral or pelvic girdles (True/False)
False (see pg. 268)
What percentage of the skeletal muscles in the body are axial muscles?
60%
What are the four types of muscles grouped according to their primary actions?
1. Prime movers (agonists)
2. Antagonists
3. Synergists
4. Fixators
What are the four groups of the axial musculature?
1. Muscles of the head and neck
2. Muscles of the vertebral column
3. Oblique and rectus muscles
4. Muscles of the perineum and pelvic diaphragm
Are any of the muscles in the group of muscles called muscles of the head and neck associated with the vertebral column?
No.
What do the muscles of the head and neck move?
1. Face
2. Tongue
3. Larynx
What functions to the muscles of the head and neck help perform?
1. Verbal and nonverbal communication - such as laughing, frowning, smiling and whistling
2. Movements associated with feeding - such as sucking, chewing swallowing
3. Contraction of eye muscles that help us look around
What kind of muscles does the group muscles of the vertebral column include?
Numerous flexors and extensors of the axial skeleton.
The oblique and rectus muscles of the axial musculature form walls of what cavities?
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity
What skeletal elements mark the ends of the oblique and rectus axial muscles?
First thoracic vertebra and the pelvis
All oblique and rectus axial muscles form complete abdominal walls (True/False)
False. The oblique and rectus muscles of the neck do not form complete muscular walls.
Are the oblique and rectus muscles of the neck included in the oblique and rectus muscle group of the axial musculature?
Yes.
Which axial musculature group does the diaphragm fall in?
Oblique and rectus muscles group.
What do the muscles of the perineum and pelvic diaphragm extend between?
The sacrum and pelvic girdle
The perineum and pelvic diaphragm muscles close out the:
a. pelvic inlet
b. pelvic outlet
c. all of the above
a. pelvic outlet
The superficial muscles of the body tend to be relatively larger than the deeper muscles of the body (True/False)
True
What does the term innervation refer to?
-Nerve supply to a particular structure or organ
-One or more motor nerves that control each skeletal muscle
How many groups are the muscles of the head and neck divided into? List them
Six
1. Muscles of facial expression
2. Extra-ocular muscles
3. Muscles of mastication
4. Muscles of the tongue
5. Muscles of the pharynx
6. Anterior muscles of the neck
The muscles of the head and neck, except for those in group anterior muscles of the neck, originate on?
- The skull or,
- Hyoid bone
The muscles involved with sight and hearing are part of the axial musculature group muscles of the head and neck (True/False)
False
1. Where do muscles of facial expression originate?

2. Where do they insert?
1. The skull

2. Dermis of the skin and the superficial facia (Note: The collagen fibers of the epimysium are woven into those of the dermis and superficial facia)
What is epimysium?
Layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surround the entire skeletal muscle and separates it from surrounding tissues and organs. It is connected to the deep fascia.
What nerve innervates a majority of the muscles of the facial expression?
Seventh cranial nerve: the facial nerve
What groups/region are the muscles of facial expression divided into? Which ones if the largest group?
1. Mouth (largest group)
2. Eye
3. Nose
4. Scalp (epicranium)
5. Neck
Which muscle constricts the opening of the mouth?
Obicularis oris
Which muscles is important to musicians?
Buccinator muscle
What are the two functions of the buccinator muscle related to feeding?
1. Move food back across the teeth from the space inside the cheek

2. In infants, responsible for producing the suction required for suckling at the breast.
What is another name for the scalp?
Epicranium
The scalp (epicranium) contains what muscles?
-Temporoparietalis
-Occipitofrontalis
What are the components of the occipitofrontalis muscles?
It has two bellies:
-Frontal belly
-Occipital belly
separated by a collagenous sheet:
-Epicranial aponeuroses
What is the muscle of facial expressions that is located on the neck?
Platysma
What group of head and neck muscles control the position of the eye? How many are there?
Extra-ocular muscles. There are a total of six.
What is another name for the extra-ocular muscles?
Oculomotor or extrinsic eye muscles.
Where do the extra-ocular muscles originate and insert?
Originate: Surface of the orbit
Insert: Sclera of the eye just posterior to the cornea
Which extra-ocular muscles cause medial eye movement and lateral eye movement?
Medial: Superior and inferior rectus and medial rectus

Lateral: Superior and inferior oblique and lateral rectus
What muscles are used to roll the eye:

1. Straight up
2. Straight down
1. Superior rectus and inferior oblique

2. Inferior rectus and superior oblique
What nerves innervate the extra-ocular muscles?
The following cranial nerves:
1. Third (oculomotor)
2. Fourth (trochlear)
3. Sixth (abducens)
What is the function of the intrinsic eye muscles?
Control
1. pupil diameter
2. lens shape
What type of muscles make up the:
1. Extrinsic eye muscles
2. Intrinsic eye muscles
1. Extrinsic: skeletal muscles
2. Intrinsic: smooth muscles
What is the function of the muscles of mastication?
Move the mandible at the temporomandibular joint.
Which is the most powerful and important of the the masticatory muscles?
Masseter muscle
What movement of the mandible does the term lateral excursion refer to?
Sliding from side to side.
Which nerve innervates the muscles of mastication?
Fifth cranial nerve: trigeminal nerve
Are the muscles of the tongue that are part of the group called muscles of the head and neck extrinsic or intrinsic tongue muscles?
Extrinsic
Which muscles begin the process of moving a bolus, or chewed mass of food, into the esophagus?
Pahryngeal constrictors
Where are intrinsic tongue muscles located?
Entirely within the tongue
What are the functions of the extrinsic tongue muscles?
1. Move tongue and in delicate and complex patterns for speech
2. Manipulate food in preparation for swallowing
Which nerve innervates most of the extrinsic tongue muscles?
Twelfth cranial nerve: hypoglossal nerve
What is the function of the muscles of the pharynx?
Initiation of swallowing
What are the three groups of muscles of the pharynx? What are their functions?
1. Pharyngeal constrictors: Constrict pharynx to propel bolus into esophagus
2. Laryngeal elevators: Elevate larynx
3. Palatal muscles: Elevate soft palate and adjacent portions of pharyngeal wall
What muscles of the pharynx also opens the entrance to the auditory tube? Why is this significant?
The levator veli palatini. As a result, swallowing repeatedly can help one adjust to pressure changes when flying or SCUBA diving.
What nerves innervate the pharyngeal muscles?
1. Ninth Cranial nerve: Glossopharyngeal
2. Tenth cranial nerve: vagus
What is the function of the anterior muscles of the neck?
1. Control position of larynx
2. Depress the mandible
3. Tense the floor of the mouth
4. Provide a stable foundation for muscles of the tongue and pharynx
What is the function of the extrinsic and intrinsic anterior muscles of the neck?
Extrinsic: position the larynx
Intrinsic: affect the vocal cords
How are the anterior muscles of the neck grouped?
-Extrinsic or intrinsic
-Suprahyoid or infrahyoid (based on location relative to hyoid bone)
Which anterior neck muscles provide support to the floor of the mouth?
1. Mylohyoid muscle
2. Geniohyoid muscle
How many muscles of facial expression are related to the mouth (count pairs as one)? List them.
Ten
1. Buccinator
2. Mentalis
3. Risorius
4. Orbicularis Oris
5. Depressor labii inferioris
6. Levator labii superioris
7. Levator anguli oris
8. Depressor anguli oris
9. Zygomaticus major
10. Zygomaticus minor
How many muscles of facial expression are related to the eye (count pairs as one)? List them.
Three
1. Corrugator supercilii
2. Levator palpebrae superioris
3. Orbicularis Oculi
How many muscles of facial expression are related to the nose (count pairs as one)? List them.
Two.
1. Procerus
2. Nasalis
How many muscles of facial expression are related to the scalp (count pairs as one)? List them.
Two
1. Occipitofrontalis (Frontal belly, occipital belly + epicranial aponeurosis)
2. Temporoparietalis
How many muscles of facial expression are related to the neck (count pairs as one)? List them.
One
1. Platysma
Buccinator (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Alveolar processes of maxilla and mandible opposite the molar teeth.
Insertion: Blends into fibers of obicularis oris
Action: Compresses cheeks
Innervation: Facial nerve
Depressor labii inferioris (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Mandible between the anterior midline and the mental foramen
Insertion: Skin of lower lip
Action: Depresses and helps evert lower lip
Innervation: Facial nerve
Levator labii superioris (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Maxilla and zygomatic bone, superior to the infra-orbital foramen
Insertion: Orbicularis orris
Action: Elevates and everts upper lip
Innervation: Facial nerve
Mentalis (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Incisive fossa of mandible
Insertion: skin of chin
Action: Elevates, everts and protrudes lower lip
Innervation: Facial nerve
Orbicularis Oris (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Maxilla and mandible
Insertion: Lips
Action: Compresses, purses lips
Innervation: Facial nerve (NVII)
Risorius (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Fascia surrounding parotid salivary gland
Insertion: Angle of mouth
Action: Draws corners of mouth laterally
Innervation: Facial nerve
Levator anguli oris (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Canine fossa of the maxilla inferior to the infra-orbital foramen
Insertion: Skin at the angle of the mouth
Action: Raises corner of mouth
Innervation: Facial nerve
Depressor anguli oris (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Anterolateral surface of mandibular body
Insertion: Akin at angle of mouth
Action: Depresses and draws the corner of mouth laterally
Innervation: Facial nerve
Zygomaticus major (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Zygomatic bone near the zygomaticotemporal suture
Insertion: Angle of mouth
Action: Elevates corner of mouth and draws it laterally
Innervation: Facial nerve
Zygomaticus minor (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Zygomatic bone posterior to zygomaticomaxillary suture
Insertion: Upper Lip
Action: Elevates upper lip
Innervation: Facial nerve
Corrugator supercilii (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Orbital rim of frontal bones near frontonasal suture
Insertion: Eyebrow
Action: Pulls skin inferiorly and medially; wrinkles brow
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
Levator palpebrae superioris (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Inferior aspect of lesser wing of the sphenoid superior to and anterior to optic canal
Insertion: Upper eyelid
Action: Elevates upper eyelid
Innervation: Oculomotor nerve (N III)
Orbicularis Oculi (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Medial margin of orbit
Insertion: Skin around eyelids
Action: Closes eye
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
Procerus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Lateral nasal cartilages and the aponeuroses covering the inferior portion of the nasal bones
Insertion: Aponeuroses at bridge of nose and skin of forehead
Action: Moves nose, changes position, shape of nostrils; draws medial angle of eyebrows inferiorly
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
Nasalis (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Maxilla and alar cartilage of nose
Insertion: Bridge of nose
Action: Compresses bridge, depresses tip of nose; elevates corners of nostrils
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
Occipitofrontalis: Frontal belly (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Epicranial aponeurosis
Insertion: Skin of eyebrow and bridge of nose
Action: Raises eyebrows, wrinkle forehead
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
Occipitofrontalis: Occipital belly (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Superior nuchal line (occipital bone) and adjacent region of mastoid process of the temporal bone
Insertion: Epicranial aponeurosis
Action: Tenses and retracts scalp
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
Temporoparietalis (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Fascia around external ear
Insertion: Epicranial aponeurosis
Action: Tenses scalp, moves auricle of ear
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
Platysma (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Fascia covering the superior aspects of the pectralis major and deltoid
Insertion: Mandible and skin of cheek
Action: Tenses skin of neck, depresses mandible
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
What is the number of extra-ocular muscles (count pairs as one)? List them.
Six
1. Inferior rectus
2. Superior rectus
3. Medial rectus
4. Lateral rectus
5. Inferior oblique
6. Superior oblique
Inferior rectus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Sphenoid around optic canal
Insertion: Inferior, medial surface of eyeball
Action: Eye looks down
Innervation: Oculomotor nerve (N III)
Medial rectus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Sphenoid around optic canal
Insertion: Inferior, medial surface of eyeball
Action: Eye looks medially
Innervation: Oculomotor nerve (N III)
Superior rectus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Sphenoid around optic canal
Insertion: Superior surface of eyeball
Action: Eye looks up
Innervation: Oculomotor nerve (N III)
Lateral rectus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Sphenoid around optic canal
Insertion: Lateral surface of eyeball
Action: Eye looks laterally
Innervation: Abducens nerve (N VI)
Inferior oblique (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Maxilla at anterior portion of orbit
Insertion: Inferior, lateral surface of eyeball
Action: Eye rolls, looks up and laterally
Innervation: Oculomotor nerve (N III)
Superior oblique (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Sphenoid around optic canal
Insertion: Superior, lateral surface of eyeball
Action: Eye rolls, looks down and laterally
Innervation: Trochlear nerve (N IV)
What is the number of muscles of mastication (count pairs as one)? List them.
Three
1. Masseter
2. Temporalis
3. Pterygoids (medial and lateral)
Masseter (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Zygomatic arch
Insertion: Lateral surface and angle of mandibular ramus
Action: Elevates mandible and closes jaws; assists in protracting and retracting mandible and moving mandible side to side
Innervation: Trigeminal nerve (N V)
Temporalis (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Along temporal lines of skull (parietal and frontal bones)
Insertion: Coronoid process of mandible and the anterior border of the mandibular ramus
Action: Elevates mandible and closes jaws; assists in retracting and moving mandible from side to side
Innervation: Trigeminal nerve (N V)
Pterygoids: medial (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Lateral pterygoid plate (sphenoid) and adjacent portions of palatine bone and maxilla
Insertion: Medial surface of mandibular ramus
Action: Elevates the mandible and closes the jaws, or moves mandible side to side
Innervation: Trigeminal nerve (N V)
Pterygoids: lateral (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Lateral pterygoid plate and greater wing of sphenoid
Insertion: Anterior part of the neck of the mandibular condyle
Action: Opens jaws, protrudes mandible, or moves mandible side to side
Innervation: Trigeminal nerve (N V)
What is the number of muscles of the tongue (count pairs as one)? List them.
Four
1. Genioglossus
2. Hyoglossus
3. Palatoglossus
4. Styloglossus
Genioglossus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Medial surface of mandible around chin
Insertion: Body of tongue, hyoid bone
Action: Depresses and protracts tongue
Innervation: Hypoglossal nerve (N XII)
Hyoglossus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Body and greater horn of hyoid bone
Insertion: Side of tongue
Action: Depresses and retracts tongue
Innervation: Hypoglossal nerve (N XII)
Palatoglossus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Anterior surface of soft palate
Insertion: Side of tongue
Action: Elevates tongue, depresses soft palate
Innervation: Branch of pharyngeal plexus (N X)
Styloglossus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Styloid process of temporal bone
Insertion: Along the side to tip to base of tongue
Action: Retract tongue, elevates sides
Innervation: Hypoglossal nerve (N XII)
List the groups of the muscles of the pharynx and muscles in them.
1. Pharyngeal constrictors (3): superior constrictor, middle constrictor and inferior constrictor
2. Laryngeal elevators (3): Palatopharyngeus, salpingopharyngeus and stylopharyngeus
3. Palatal muscles (2): Levator veli palatini and tensor veli palatini
Pharyngeal constrictors: superior, middle inferior (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Pterygoid process of sphenoid, medial surfaces of mandible, ad the side of the tongue (superior), horns of hyoid bone (middle), circoid and throid cartilaes of larynx
Insertion: Median raphe attaches to hyoid bone (superior), median raphe (middle and inferior)
Action: Constrict pharynx to propel bolus into esophagus
Innervation: Branches of pharyngeal plexus (N X)
Laryngeal elevators: palatopharyngeus, salpingopharyngeus, stylopharyngeus (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Soft and hard palates (palatopharyngeus), cartilage around the inferior portion of the auditory tube (salpingopharygeus), styloid process of temporal bone (stylopharageus)
Insertion: Thyroid cartilage
Action: Elevate larynx
Innervation: Branches of pharyngeal plexus (N IX & X)
Palatal muscles: levator veli palatini, tensor veli palatini (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Petrous part of temporal bone, tissues around the auditory tube (levator), sphenoidal spine, pterygoid process and tissues around the auditory tube (tensor)
Insertion: Soft palate
Action: Elevate soft palate
Innervation: Branches of pharyngeal plexus (N X) (levator), (N V) (tensor)
What is the number of anterior muscles of the neck (count pairs as one)? List them.
Nine
1. Digastric: Anterior belly and posterior belly
2. Geniohyoid
3. Mylohyoid
4. Stylohyoid
5. Omohyoid
6. Sternohyoid
7. Sternothyroid
8. Thyrohyoid
9. Sternocleidomastoid: clavicular head and sternal head
Digastric: anterior and posterior (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: From inferior surface of mandible at chin (anterior); from mastoid region of temporal bone (posterior)
Insertion: Hyoid bone
Action: Depresses mandible, opening mouth and/or elevate larynx
Innervation: Trigeminal nerve (N V), mandibular branch
Geniohyoid (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Medial surface of mandible at chin
Insertion: Hyoid bone
Action: Depresses mandible, opening mouth and/or elevate larynx and retracts hyoid bone
Innervation: Cervical nerve C1 via hypoglossal nerve (N XII)
Mylohyoid (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Mylohyoid line of mandible
Insertion: Median connective tissue band (raphe) that runs to hyoid bone
Action: Elevates floor of mouth, elevates hyoid bone, and/or depresses hyoid bone
Innervation: Trigeminal nerve (N V), mandibular branch
Omohyoid (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Superior border of the scapula near the scapular notch
Insertion: Hyoid bone
Action: Depresses hyoid bone and larynx
Innervation: Cervical spinal nerves C2-C3
Sternohyoid (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Clavicle and manubrium
Insertion: Hyoid bone
Action: Depresses hyoid bone and larynx
Innervation: Cervical spinal nerves C1-C3
Sternothyroid (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Dorsal surface of manubrium and first costal cartilage
Insertion: Thyroid cartilage of larynx
Action: Depresses hyoid bone and larynx
Innervation: Cervical spinal nerves C1-C3
Stylohyoid (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Styloid process of temporal bone
Insertion: Hyoid bone
Action: Elevates larynx
Innervation: Facial nerve (N VII)
Thyrohyoid (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Thyroid cartilage of larynx
Insertion: Hyoid bone
Action: Elevates larynx, depresses hyoid bone
Innervation: Cervical spinal nerves C1-C2 via hypoglossal nerve (N XII)
Sternocleidomastoid: clavicular head and sternal head (origin, insertion, action, innervation)
Origin: Attaches to sternal end of clavicle (clavicular); Attaches to manubrium (sternal)
Insertion: Mastoid region of skull and lateral portion of superior nuchal line
Action: Together, they flex the neck; alone, one side bends neck toward shoulder and turns face to opposite side
Innervation: Accessory nerve (N XI) and cervical spinal nerves (C2-C3) of cervical plexus
Which muscles of the head and neck are innervated by cranial nerves and which are innervated by cervical nerves?
Cranial: All muscles of the head and neck
Cervical: Anterior muscles of the neck
List the major cranial nerves that innervate the muscles of the head and neck. (Majority of which muscles group of head and neck are innervated by these nerves)
N III: Oculomotor nerve (extra-ocular muscles)
N V: Trigeminal nerve (muscles of mastication)
N VII: Facial nerve (muscles of facial expression)
N X: Branches of pharyngeal plexus, vagus nerve (muscles of pharynx)
N XII: Hypoglossal nerve (muscles of tongue)
What are the bone features of the temporal bone and mandible that make up the temporomandibular joint?
Temporal bone: Mandibular fossa + articular tubercle
Mandible: Head of condylar process
What kind of cartilage covers the articulating surfaces of the temporal bone and mandible in the temporomandibular joint? Why is this unique?
Fibrous cartilage. This is unique because most other synovial joints have hyaline cartilage.
What separates the bones in the temporomandibular joint?
A thick disc of fibrous cartilage.
What is the significance of the fibrous cartilage disc in the temporomandibular joint?
It divides the joint cavity into two separate chamber. As a result, the temporomandibular joint is really two synovial joints: one between the temporal bones and the articular disc, and the second between the articular disc and the mandible.
The articular capsule around the temporomandibular joint is well defined (True/False)
False.
Which portion of the articular capsule of the temporomandibular joint is loose and which portion is tight?
Loose: Superior to neck of condyle
Tight: Inferior to the cartilage disc
The temporomandibular joint is highly stabilized (True/False)
False
Due to poor stabilization of the temporomandibular joint, what injury can result from a forceful lateral or anterior movement?
Partial or complete dislocation
How many ligaments are present in the temporomandibular joint. List them. Classify them as intrinsic (capsular) or extrinsic (extra-capsular).
There
1. Lateral ligament (intrinsic)
2. Stylomandibular ligament (extrinsic)
3. Sphenomandibular ligament (extrinsic)
What structures do the stylomandibular and sphenomandibular ligaments of the temporomandibular joint extend between?
Stylomandibular: Styloid process of temproal bone to posterior margin of angle of the mandibular ramus

Sphenomandibular: Sphenoidal spine tot he medial surface of the mandibular ramus.
Why are the secondary movements of gliding and rotation of the temporomandibular joint important?
They are important when position food on the grinding surfaces of the teeth.
Cranial and facial bones of skull (Joint, Type of articulation, Movements)
Joint: Various
Type of Articulation: Synarthroses (suture or synostosis)
Movements: None
Maxillae/teeth (Joint, Type of articulation, Movements)
Joint: Alveolar
Type of Articulation: Synarthrosis (gomphosis)
Movements: None
Madible/teeth (Joint, Type of articulation, Movements)
Joint: Alveolar
Type of Articulation:Synarthrosis (gomphosis)
Movements: None
Temporal bone/mandible (Joint, Type of articulation, Movements)
Joint: Temporomandibular
Type of Articulation: Diarthrosis (Combined plane joint and hinge joint)
Movements: Elevation/depression, lateral gliding, limited protraction/retraction
Which nerve plexus (and its spinal segments) innervates the anterior muscles of the neck?
The cervical plexus (spinal segments C1-C4)
The cutaneous branches of the cervical plexus innervate what skin on what parts of the body??
1. Head
2. Neck
3. Chest
Which branch of the subclavian artery supplies blood to the brain and spinal cord?
The vertebral artery
Which blood vessel can be felt by pressing gently along either side of the trachea (windpipe) until a strong pulse is felt?
A common carotid artery
Where is the carotid sinus located? What is its significance?
At the base of the internal carotid artery. It may contain baroreceptors and chemoreceptors involved in cardiovascular regulation.
Which of the following supplies blood to the neck, pharynx, esophagus, larynx, lower jaw and face?

a. External carotid artery
b. Internal carotid artery
a. External carotid
Which of the following passes through the carotid canals of the temporal bones?

a. External carotid
b. Internal carotid
b. Internal carotid
Which branches of the internal carotid supply the following?
a. eyes
b. frontal and parietal lobes
c. midbrain and lateral surface of the cerebral hemisphere
a. Opthalmic artery
b. Anterior cerebral artery
c. Middle cerebral artery
The brain is extremely sensitive to changes in its circulatory supply (True/False)
True
How long will it take to produce unconsciousness after interruption of blood circulation to the brain
Several seconds
Circulatory supply interruption of what duration could cause permanent neural damage.
After 4 minutes
1. How do vertebral arteries enter the cranium?

2. How does the internal carotid artery enter the cranium?
1. Through the foramen magnum (occipital bone)

2. Through the carotid canals (temporal bone)
What parts of the brain do the internal carotid and vertebral arteries supply?
Internal carotid: anterior half of the cerebrum

Vertebral: rest of the brain
What is the ring shaped anastomosis in the brain formed by the internal carotid and basilar arteries?
Cerebral arterial circle or circle of Willis
What is the significance of the cerebral arterial circle?
With this anastomosis the brain can receive blood from either or both arterial sources, the carotids or the vertebrals, and the chances for a serious interruption of circulation to the brain are reduced.
Trace the path from the aortic arch to the posterior communicating arteries on left and right side?
Aortic arch ---> left subclavian ---> vertebral artery ---> basilar artery (formed by fusion of vertebral arteries from right and left subclavian) ---> posterior cerebral artery ---> posterior communication artery

Aortic arch ---> brachiocephalic artery ---> right subclavian ---> vertebral ---> same as for left side above
Trace the path from the aortic arch to the internal and external carotids on left and right side?
Aortic Arch ---> Left common carotid ---> branch into internal and external carotid

Aortic Arch ---> brachiocephalic artery ---> Right common carotid ---> branch into internal and external carotid
What are the three branches of the internal carotid artery?
1. Opthalmic artery
2. Anterior cerebral artery
3. Middle cerebral artery
What veins drain the cerebral hemisphere?
Numerous:
-Superficial cerebral veins
-Internal cerebral veins
-Others
What are the sinuses associated with the superficial cerebral veins? Which one is the largest?
1. Superior (largest) and inferior sagittal sinuses
2. Petrosal sinuses
3. Occipital sinus
4. Left and right transverse sinuses
5. Straight sinus
Trace path from superficial cerebral veins to the superior vena cava.
Superficial cerebral veins ---> Left and right transverse sinuses ---> confluence of sinuses ---> sigmoid sinus ---> internal jugular vein ---> brachiocephalic veins ---> superior vena cava
Trace path from internal cerebral veins to the superior vena cava.
Internal cerebral veins ---> great cerebral veins ---> straight sinus ---> confluence of sinuses ---> sigmoid sinus ---> internal jugular vein ---> brachiocephalic veins ---> superior vena cava
Trace path from other cerebral veins to the superior vena cava.
Other cerebral veins ---> cavernous sinus ---> petrosal sinuses ---> internal jugular vein ---> brachiocephalic veins ---> superior vena cava
Trace path from vertebral veins to the superior vena cava.
Vertebral vein ---> brachiocephalic veins ---> superior vena cava
Which vein collects blood from the interior of the cerebral hemispheres and the choroid plexus?
The great cerebral vein
1. Which sinus penetrates the jugular foramen to leave the skull

2. and what does it emerge as on the other side?
1. Sigmoid sinus

2. Internal jugular vein
What veins drain the cervical spinal cord and the posterior surface of the skull?
Vertebral veins
Superficial veins of the head converge to form what veins?
1. Temporal veins (drain into external jugular)
2. Facial veins (drain into external jugular)
3. Maxillary veins (drain into internal jugular)
1. Where is the broad anastomoses between the internal and external jugular veins?

2. What is its significance?
1. Angle of the mandible

2. Provides dual venous drainage of the face scalp and cranium
1. Where can the jugular venous pulse (JVP) be seen and felt?

2. What vein is involved?
1. At the base of the neck.

2. External jugular vein
What lymph nodes monitor lymph originating in the head and neck?
Cervical lymph nodes
What are the sexual differences in the following regions/features of the Skull of the adult human skeleton?
1. General Appearance
2. Forehead
3. Sinuses
1. Male: Heavier, rougher surface
Female: Lighter, smoother surface
2. Male: More sloping
Female: More vertical
3. Male: Larger
Female: Smaller
What are the sexual differences in the Skull of the following regions/features of the adult human skeleton?
1. Cranium
2. Mandible
3. Teeth
1. Male: About 10% larger (average)
Female: About 10% smaller (average)
2. Male: Larger, more robust
Female: Lighter, smaller
3. Male: Larger
Female: Smaller
What are age related changes to the Skull of a human for the following regions/structures?
1. Fontanels
2. Frontal suture
3. Occipital bone
4. Styloid process
1. Events: Closure; Age: Completed by age 2
2. Events: Fusion; Age 2-8
3. Fusion of ossification centers; Age: 1-6
4. Fusion with temporal bone; Age 12-16
What are age related changes to the Skull of a human for the following regions/structures?
1. Hyoid bone
2. Teeth
3. Mandible
1. Events: Complete ossification and fusion; Age: 25-30 or later
2. Events: Loss of "baby teeth"; appearance of permanent teeth; eruption of permanent molars; Age: Detailed in Chapter 25
3. Events: Loss of teeth; reduction in bone mass; change in angle at the mandibular notch; Age: Accelerates in later years (age 60)
1. How many neurons are in the the nervous system?

2. How many of them are in the brain?
1. Tens of billions

2. 20 billion
What percentage of neural tissue in the human body is contained in the brain?
95%
What is the weight and volume of the average adult brain?
Weight: 1.4 kg (3 lb)

Volume: 1350 cc (83 cubic inch)
The brain of males is on average 10% larger than those of females (True/False)
True
What is the color of a freshly removed brain?
Gray externally and tan or pink internally.
What does the central nervous system begin as in an embryo?
As a hollow neural tube with a fluid filled cavity called the neurocoel.
What are the primary brain vesicles in an embryo? When do they occur?
1. Prosencephalon (forebrain)
2. Mesencephalon (midbrain)
3. Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

They are present at 3 weeks
What are the secondary brain vesicles in an embryo?What primary brain vesicles are they formed from? When do they occur?
1. Telencephalon and diencephalon (from Prosencephalon)
2. Mesencephalon (from mesencephalon)
3. Metencephalon and myelencephalon (from rhombencephalon)
What regions of the brain are formed from the secondary brain vesicles?
1. Telencephalon: cerebrum
2. Diencephalon: diencephalon
3. Mesencephalon: mesencephalon
4. Metencephalon: cerebellum and pons
5. Myelencephalon: medulla oblongata
Which secondary brain vesicle do the optic vesicles extend from?
Diencephalon
What are the six major divisions of the adult brain?
1. Medulla oblongata
2. Pons
3. Mesencephalon
4. Diencephalon
5. Cerebellum
6. Cerebrum
What parts of brain are collectively called the brain stem? What is the function of the brain stem?
1. Medulla oblangata
2. Pons
3. Mesencephalon

Function: Contains important processing centers and relays information to and from the cerebrum or cerebellum.
What are the functions of the Cerebrum?
1. Conscious though processes, intellectual functions
2. Memory storage and processing
3. Conscious and subconscious regulation of skeletal muscle contractions
What are the functions of the diencephalon?
1. Thalamus: Relay and processing centers for sensory information.

2. Hypothalamus: Centers controlling emotions, autonomic functions, and hormone production.
What are the functions of the Mesencephalon?
1. Processing of visual and auditory data
2. Generation of reflexive somatic motor responses
3. Maintenance of consciousness
What are the functions of the Pons?
1. Relays sensory information to cerebellum and thalamus.
2. Subconscious somatic and visceral motor centers
What are the functions of the medulla oblangata?
1. Relays sensory information to the thalamus and to other portions of the brain stem.
2. Autonomic centers for regulation of visceral function (cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive system activities)
What are the functions of the cerebellum?
1. Coordinates complex somatic motor patterns
2. Adjust output of other somatic motor centers in brain and spinal cord
Which part of the brain controls emotions?
Hypothalamus
Which part of the brain maintains consciousness?
Mesencephalon
Which part of the brain controls hormone production?
Hypothalamus
Which part of the brain processes auditory and visual information?
Mesencephalon
Where does the spinal cord connect to the brain stem?
At the medulla oblangata
What part of the brain regulates the heart rate, blood pressure and digestive activities?
Medulla oblongata
What does term pons mean and why is it called that?
The term pons refers to a bridge, and the pons connects the cerebellum to the brain stem.
What is the deep portion of the brain?
Diencephalon
What are the three subdivisions of the diencephalon?
1. Epithalamus (top)
2. Thalamus (right and left)
3. Hypothalamus (bottom)
Where is the pineal gland located?
In the epithalamus of the diencephalon.
What part of the brain does the pituitary gland connected to?
The hypothalamus of the diencephalon.
What are the two divisions of the cerebrum called and what are they separated by?
Cerebral hemispheres separated by the longitudinal fissure.
What is the surface of the cerebrum called? What is it composed of?
Cerebral cortex composed of gray matter.
What are the furrows and ridges of the cerebrum called?
Furrows: sulci
Ridges: gyri
What do the larger sulci divide the cerebrum into?
Lobes
How is gray matter distributed in the cerebrum? What are these regions called?
1. Inner regions of gray matter called nuclei surrounded by tracts of white matter.
2. Gray matter surrounds the fluid-filled ventricles
3. A superficial layer of gray matter called neural cortex
The nuclei are clusters of neuron cell bodies (True/False)
True
The arrangement of white matter and nuclei in the brain is as predictable as that in the spinal cord (True/False)
False
What does the term "higher centers" refer to?
Nuclei, centers and cortical areas of the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon and mesencephalon.
What is the significance of higher centers?
Output from the higher centers modifies the activities of nuclei and centers in the lower bran stem and spinal cord.
The nuclei and cortical centers of the brain can receive sensory information and issue motor commands to peripheral effectors indirectly and directly through?
Indirectly: spinal cord and spinal nerves

Directly: cranial nerves
What are ventricles of the brain?
Fluid filled cavities within the brain.
Fluid: cerebrospinal fluid
Lined by: ependymal cells
What type of cells line the ventricles of the brain? What are they called?
Epithelial cells called ependymal cells
How many ventricles are present in the brain? What are they called and where are they located?
Four
1. Two lateral ventricle (cerebral hemispheres)
2. Third ventricle (diencephalon)
3. Fourth ventricle (between pons and cerebellum and extends into superior portion of medulla oblangata)
Are the lateral ventricles of the brain connected directly?
No.
What is the medial partition between the lateral ventricles called?
Septum pellucidum
What are the structures of the lateral ventricles and where are they located?
1. Body (Parietal lobe)
2. Anterior horn (Frontal lobe)
3. Posterior horn (Occipital lobe)
4. Inferior horn (Temporal lobe)
What are the connections between the lateral ventricles and the third ventricle called?
Interventricular foramen (Foramen of Monro)
What is the canal between the third and fourth ventricle called? Where is it located?
Aqueduct of the midbrain (aqueduct of Sylvius or cerebral aqueduct) located in the mesecephalon.
Which ventricle connects to the central canal of the spinal cord?
The fourth ventricle
Why does the brain have an extensive blood supply?
Due to its high demand for nutrients and oxygen.
What structures/features are involved in the protection, support and nourishment of the brain?
1. The bones of the skull
2. The cranial meninges
3. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
4. The blood-brain barrier
What is the primary function of the cranial meninges?
To act as shock absorbers that prevent contact with the surrounding bones.
Are the cranial meninges continuous with the spinal meninges?
Yes.
What are the three layers of the cranial meninges? Of the spinal meninges?
1. Dura mater (outermost)
2. Arachnoid mater (middle)
3. Pia mater

The spinal meninges have the same three layers but of have the distinctive specializations and functions of the spinal meninges.
What is the structure of the dura mater?
1. Two layers: endosteal layer and meningeal layer
2. Gap between layers in many areas containing cerebrospinal fluids and blood vessels including large veins called dural sinuses.
What is the significance of the dural sinuses?
The veins of the brain open into theses sinuses, which in turn deliver blood ti the internal jugular vein of the neck.
What are the four folds of the meninges? What are their locations?
1. Falx cerebri (in longitudinal fissure between cerebral hemispheres)
2. Tentorium cerebelli (extends across cranium at right angle to falx cerebri separating cerebellum from cerebrum)
3. Falx cerebelli (midsagittal line inferior to tentorium cerbelli; divides the two cerebellar hemispheres)
4. Diaphragma sellae (lines the sella turcica of the sphenoid and ensheathes base of the pituitary gland)
What does the inferior portion the falx cerebri anchor to?
1. Crista galli (ethmoid bone)
2. Internal occiptal crest
3. Temtorium cerebelli
What sinuses lie within:
1. Falx cerebri
2. Tentorium cerebelli
3. Falx cerebelli
1. Falx cerebri: superior and inferior sagittal sinuses
2. Tentorium cerebelli: transverse sinus
3. Falx cerebelli: occipital sinus
1. Where is the subdural space located?

2. Is it present in life?
1. Between Dura mater and arachnoid mater

2. It is likely that in life no such space exists and only shows up in anatomical preparations
Does the cranial arachnoid mater follow the convolutions (sulci) of the brain?
No. It provides a smooth surface.
Where is the subarachnoid space located?
Between arachnoid mater and pia mater.
What are the contents of the subarachnoid space?
1. Arachnoid trabeculae (meshwork of collagen and elastic fibers that link arachnoid mater and pia mater)
2. Blood vessels
3. Cerebrospinal fluid
What are the fingerlike extensions of the cranial arachnoid mater that penetrate the dura mater to project into the venous sinuses called?
Arachnoid granulations.
Where are the arachnoid granulations located?
Along the axis of the superior sagittal sinus.
What is the significance of the arachnoid granulations?
Cerebrospinal fluid crosses the arachnoid matter and enter the venous circulation at the arachnoid granulations.
What acts as the roof and floor for cranial veins (except dural sinuses)?
Roof: Arachnoid mater
Floor: Pia mater
What supports and suspends the cerebral arteries and veins in the subarachnoid space?
Arachnoid trabeculae
What are the channels where blood vessels penetrate the substance of the brain called?
Perivascular space.
The pia matter like the arachnoid mater does not follow the contours of the brain (True/False)
False. The cranial pia mater is tightly attached to the surface contours of the brain, following its contours and lining the sulci.
Does the pia mater sit on the surface of the contours of the brain or is it tightly attached to surface of the brain?
Tightly attached.
What anchors the pia mater to the surface of the brain?
Prcosses of astrocytes
What are astrocytes?
The largest and most numerous glial cells (neurolgia or supporting cells of neural tissue)
What isolates the neural tissue in the CNS from its extensive blood supply?
The blood-brain barrier (BBB)
What is the function of the blood-brain barrier?
Isolates CNS from general circulation. This provides a means to maintain a constant environment, which is necessary for both control and proper functioning of CNS neurons.
What makes the blood-brain barrier possible?
Specific anatomy and transport characteristics of the endothelial cells lining the capillaries of the CNS.
List the specific anatomical features and transport characteristics of the CNS capillaries that ensure the blood-brain barrier. What are their functions?
1. Endothelial cells interconnected by tight junctions: prevent diffusion of materials between endothelial cells, so only lipid-soluble compounds can diffuse across the endothelial plasmalemmae and into the interstitial fluid of the brain and spinal cord.
2. Few pinocytotic vesicles in the endothelial cells: limiting movement of large -molecular-weight compounds into CNS.
3. Water soluble compound can only cross capillary walls through passive and active transport.
The restricted permeability of the endothelial lining of brain capillaries are in some ways dependent on chemicals secreted by:
a. ependymal cells
b. astrocytes
c. pia mater
b. astrocytes
Endothelial transport across the blood-brain barrier is selective and directional (True/False)
True
The need of glucose by neurons can be adjusted based on relative concentrations in the blood and interstitial fluid (True/False)
False.
What happens transport of glucose to the brain when glucose levels in blood are low?
The endothelial cells of the brain capillaries continue to transport glucose from the blood to the interstitial fluid of the brain.
What amino acid acts as a neurotransmitter?
Glycine
Since amino acid glycine acts as a neurotransmitter its concentration in neural tissue must be kept higher than circulating blood (True/False)
False. Glycine concentration in neural tissue must be kept lower than in circulating blood.
What ensures lower glycine levels in neural tissue than in circulating blood?
The CNS capillaries endothelial cells actively absorb this compound form the interstitial fluid of the brain and secrete it into the blood.
Where in the brain is the blood-brain barrier absent? Why?
1. Hypothalamus: permits exposure of hypothalamus to circulating hormones and diffusion of hypothalamic hormones intro circulation.
2. Pineal gland: allows pineal secretions into the general circulation
3. Choroid plexus (third and fourth ventricles): for cerebrospinal fluid production
How are capillaries of the hypothalamus, pineal gland and choroid plexus different from those of the blood-brain barrier?
They have increase permeability.
Despite increase permeability of capillaries at the choroid plexus why do blood substances not have free access to the cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles?
This is due to the tight junctions between ependymal cells that line the ventricle at the choroid plexus.

Note: These tight junctions between ependymal cells do not exist elsewhere in the ventricles.
1. What are the sites of the cerebrospinal fluid production called?

2. Where are they located?
1. Choroid plexus

2. Third and fourth ventricles. The choroid plexus of the third ventricle extend into the lateral ventricles.
Cerebrospinal fluid lies both within and without the substance of the central nervous system (True/False)
False. It surrounds and bathes the exposed surfaces of the central nervous system.
What are the important functions of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
1. Preventing contact between the delicate neural structures and surrounding bones.
2. Supporting the brain (the brain is floating in cerebrospinal fluid)
3. Transporting nutrients, chemical messengers and waste products.
What does the human brain weight
1. in air
2. when supported by the cerebrospinal fluid
1. 1400 g
2. 50 g
The brain has a much higher density than water (True/False)
False. Only a little denser.
1. Is the ependymal lining freely permeable?

2. What is the significance of this?
1. Yes, except at the choroid plexus

2. Allows for free diffusion between the brain interstitial fluid and the cerebrospinal fluid. Therefor changes in the CNS function may produce changes in the composition of the CSF.
What are the characteristic of the choroid plexus?
1. Fenestrated and highly permeable capillaries
2. Large, specialized ependymal cells (have tight junctions)
What is the function of the choroid plexus?
Production of cerebrospinal fluid
What prevents free exchange between the capillaries and CSF at the choroid plexus?
Large, highly specialized ependymal cells.
By what mechanisms do ependymal cells at the choroid plexus secrete cerebrospinal fluid into the ventricles?
Both active and passive transport mechanisms.
Substance only flows from the capillaries to the CSF at the choroid plexus and not vice versa (True/False)
False. The choroid plexus removes waste and from the CSF and fine tunes its components over time.
What is cerebrospinal fluid derived from?
Blood plasma (blood with cellular elements removed); but it is not merely a simple filtrate of blood. The specialized ependymal cells at the choroid plexus control flow of material between capillaries and CSF and fine tunes CSF over time.
Blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid have almost the same composition (True/False)
False
How is the composition of blood plasma and CSF different?
1. Blood contains high concentrations of suspended protein, but the CSF does not
2. Differences in concentrations of individual ions
3. Differences in levels of amino acids, lipids and waster products
1. What is the total volume of CSF in humans?

2. At what rate is CSF produced by choroid plexus?

3. At what rate is the entire volume of CSF replaced?
1. 150 ml

2. 500 ml/day

3. Every 8 hours
The choroid plexus of the third ventricle extends into the lateral ventricles through what?
Interventricular foramina
Trace the flow of CSF from the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles to the dural sinuses.
Blood circulation ---> Choroid plexus ---> Lateral ventricle ---> Interventricular foramen ---> Third ventricle ---> Aqueduct of midbrain ---> Fourth ventricle ---> lateral and median apertures ---> subarachnoid space ---> arachnoid granulations ---> dural sinuses (blood circulation)
CSF does not move around (True/False)
False. Continuously flows around brain and spinal cord.
Interruption of normal circulation of CSF can cause a variety of clinical problems (True/False)
True
What moves CSF around the spinal cord?
Movements of the vertebral column.
Where can cerebrospinal fluid be found in the CNS?
1. The ventricles
2. Subarachnoid space of the brain and spine
3. Central canal of spinal cord
Neurons have energy reserves in the form of carbohydrates and lipids to help meet their high demand for energy (True/False)
False
Neurons have lots of myoglobin to help store oxygen (True/False)
False
What is myoglobin?
Oxygen binding globular protein related to hemoglobin used for oxygen reserves in skeletal muscles.
How is the energy and oxygen demand of the bran met?
Through extensive vascular supply.
1. What arteries supply blood to the brain?

2. What veins drain most of the blood from the brain?
1. Internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries

2. Internal jugular vein (drain dural sinuses)
What is a complication of damage to cerebral blood vessels?
IF bleeding is into the dura mater or between the outer layer of the dura mater and the bones of the skull, the blood entering these spaces will compress and distort the relatively soft tissues of the brain.
What are the circulatory disorders that interfere with the normal blood supply to the brain called>
Cerebrovascular diseases.
What determines the symptoms and severity of cardiovascular diseases?
Symptoms: distribution of vessels involved
Severity: Degree of oxygen or nutrient starvation
1. What is another name for a stroke?

2.What causes a stroke?

3. What is an effect of a stroke?
1. Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
2. When the blood supply to a portion of the brain is shut off.
3. Affected neurons begin to die in a matter of minutes.
Discuss the structure and function of the pia mater.
The pia mater is a highly vascular membrane composed primarily of areolar connective tissue. It acts as a floor to support the large cerebral blood vessels as they branch over the surface of the brain, invading the neural contours to supply superficial areas of the neural cortex.
What can half the deaths from trauma be attributed to?
Head injuries
What are the signs and symptoms of a
1. Mild concussion
2. Severe concussion
1. -Brief interruption of consciousness
-Little memory loss
2. - Extended periods of unconsciousness
-Abnormal neurological functions
Damage to meningeal vessels causes bleeding into what spaces? What are these conditions called?
1. Epidural space: epidural hemorrhage
2. Subdural space: subdural hemorrhage
Does epidural hemorrhage mostly involve a damaged artery or vein?
Damaged artery.
What is the difference in symptoms between arterial and venous epidural hemorrhage?
Arterial: individual loses consciousness from mitues to hours after the injury and death follows in untreated cases.
Venous: Does not produce massive symptoms immediately, and individual may become unconscious from several hours to several days or even weeks after the original incident.
Epidural hemorrhages are more common than subdural hemorrhages (True/False)
False. Subdural hemorrhages are roughly twice as common as epidural hemorrhages.
Where does blood collect in the subdural hemorrhage?
Within the dura mater and not in the subdural space.