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122 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

Total Fertility Rate

The number of births a typical woman will have over her lifetime.

Pronatalist Bias

Having children is taken for granted.

Antinatalist Bias

Some argue that the U.S. has become this way; slanted against having children or not doing all it can to support parents and their children.

Value of children persepctive

The idea that children bring unique benefits to parents.

social capital perspective

The anticipated social capital benefits of parenthood.

opportunity costs

Parents forego income and investment when they raise their children; parents work additional hours and have less leisure time.

How has the TFR changed from 1950s through the present? How about for teen mothers? Mothers in their 20s? Mothers in their 40s?

Dropped sharply from high of more than 3.5 (peak of baby boom) to the lowest 1.738 in 1976. Recent years TFR fluctuated around 2 on average.


Births to teen mothers and mothers in 20's are declining.


Childlessness is higher for women now than in the past.

The ideal family size is smaller than it was 200 years ago. Why?

Changes in the economy and in turn changes in gender roles; as women's employment increased, fertility declined.


Decline in infant mortality rate.


Widespread availability of birth control.

What is the relationship between socioeconomic status/social class and family size?

In the U.S. the Northeast is most expensive; the South is the least. Rural areas are cheaper than urban areas. College and other costs beyond age 18 are additional.

We all know that the direct costs of raising children are high, but what are some examples of opportunity costs associated with child-rearing?

FIND

What are some reasons for the increase in voluntary childlessness seen today?

Factors: greater ability to control fertility, participation of women in work force, concern about overpopulation, and rejection of the traditional family.


Have more education and more likely to have managerial or professional employment and higher incomes; more urban, less traditional gender roles; value relative freedom to change jobs or careers, move around country, pursue endeavors, more satisfied with relationships than parenting couples.

Why are many women choosing to postpone parenthood? What are the advantages and disadvantages of later parenthood?

Later age at marriage; desire of women to complete their education and become established in their careers; reliable contraception, assisted reproductive technology.

What are 3 reasons for the recent increase in the proportion of only children?

Women's increasing career opportunities; the high cost of raising a child through college; and peer support.

What are some of the advantages of having only one child? What are some of the disadvantages?

A: parents can report they can enjoy parenthood w/o feeling overwhelmed and tied down, more free time and better off financially, family members can share decisions more equally, high educational expectations for the child, more likely to know child's friends, are able to save more money for college education.


D: lack of opportunity to experience sibling relationships, only children may face extra pressure from parents to succeed, as adults they have no help in caring for gaining parents, (for parents) there is the fear that only child will be injured or die.

How do children affect marriage happiness?

Children (especially young ones) stabilize marriage, but stable is not necessarily a happy one.


Parents report lower marital satisfaction and the more children there are, the lower the satisfaction.


Parents more likely to experience depression than are non parents.

In the event of unplanned pregnancy, women can legally choose abortion, adoption or parenting. Which is the most common choice? Which is the least common choice?

Having the child is the most common whereas adoption is the least common.

What are some of the reasons women choose abortion or adoption?

Abortion: primarily made in the context of unmarried, accidental pregnancies; having child would interfere w/ woman's education, work, or ability to care for dependents; not being able to afford child; not ready to be single mother; medical complications; pregnancy result of rape or incest.


Adoption: having/carrying child would interfere w/ woman' work, educ; belief that adoption best chance for child to be cared for financially and emotionally; not ready to be a parent but opposed to abortion.

What is the difference between closed, semi-open, and open adoptions?

Open: birth parent(s) and adopting parent(s) have some contact. Birth parents chooses or approves the adoptive parents, and in some cases and ongoing relationship is maintained.


Closed: birth parent(s) and adopting parent(s) do not have any information about each other.


Semi Open: adoptions in which the biological and the adoptive parents exchange information such as photographs or letters but don't otherwise communicate.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of later parenthood?

Disadvantage: women who postponed parenthood found that combining established careers with parenting created unforeseen events; children born to older parents often experience anxiety about their parent's health and mortality.


Advantages: more confidence about ability to manage, more money to arrange services, more confidence about parenting; late fathers express great deal of joy in parenthood; children born to later parents benefit front he financial and emotional stability that older parents provide.

Are there advantages and disadvantages of open adoption, closed adoption, or semi-open adoption?

find

psychological parent

Holds major emotional responsibility for safety and upbringing.

helicopter parenting

Also known as hyper parenting; parents who hover above, meddling excessively in their children's lives.


Mothers of Middle SES are more likely to be helicopter moms.

family stress perspective/ model

Stress that parents experience form sources such as job demands, financial worries, concerns about neighborhood safety, etc.


Causes: parental frustration, anger/depression, increasing likelihood of household conflict.


High stress: inconsistent discipline, limited parental warmth or involvement, lower levels of trust and communication. DRAW MODEL.

multi-partnered fertility

A parent's experience of having biological children with with more than one partner in his/her lifetime.

sandwich generation

Generation of people who care for their gaining parents while supporting their own children.

What are parents supposed to do for children?

Parents supposed to supply: love, nurturing, protection, and care to develop sense of trust; assistance toward autonomy/independence; guidance, discipline, and support; and major source of primary socialization.

how does parenting typically differ by gender? What is traditional role of the mother and traditional role of the father?

Cultural tradition, mothers assume primary responsibility for child rearing.


Historically, fathers have been breadwinners, not expected to be engaged in daily activities or responsibilities.

How are traditional roles in families changing? How do mothers and fathers typically differ in regards to the characteristics of their relationships with their children?

Mothers: engage in more of the parenting chores compared to fathers; spend time talking to children, asking questions, explaining things; offer more "chances"; teach children emotional and relational skills; define quality time as having heart-to-heart talks/child centered activities.


Fathers: play and participate in leisure activities; more likely to tease and joke; hand out punishments quicker than mothers; focus on teaching their children survival/practical skills' define quality time as being at home, and being available if needed.

Four parenting styles?

Authoritarian: low on emotional warmth and nurturing; high on parental direction and control; more likely to spank children or use otherwise harsh punishment.


Permissive-Indulgent: low on parental direction or control; high on emotional nurturing; characterized as indulgent and leading to a "spoiled" child.

Four parenting styles…continued

Permissive-Uninvolved: low on emotional warmth and nurturing; low on parental direction and control.


Authoritative: positive parenting; warm, firm, and fair; combines emotional nurturing and support with conscientious parental direction.

There is a strong relationship social class/SES and parenting beliefs, goals, parenting styles, and parenting practices. What are some of the main parenting differences between families of lower, middle, and higher social class/SES?

Developmental milestones/time tables; estimates of children's capacities; values about behavior; parents role in achieving valued outcomes.


Parents with more education tend to be more authoritative; higher/middle SES speak to kids more, use greater variety, complexity in speech.


Parents w/ less tend to be more authoritarian or permissive. Lower SES children vocal (kindergarten) 3,000 words compared to 20,000 middle SES.


Lower SES; more controlling, restrictive, more time to discipline, corporal punishment.

How might having a parent in prison affect family life?

Creates transition to single parenthood, or non-parental custodial arrangement.


Children may grieve the loss of the incarcerated parent.


Upon release, parent may have difficultly: gaining employment, regaining custody of child(ren), adjusting to society.

How might experiencing several parents and parents' partners enter and exit the home affect children?

The number of transitions a child experiences is related to negative outcomes. Frequent transitions cause greater family stress.

Describe the risk and resiliency factors that have been identified among many military families?

FIND

In what ways might we expect children of lesbian parents to be similar to children of heterosexual parents? In what ways different?

Similar in behavior and educational performance; no evidence show that parents orientation has effect on child's gender identity/role/orientation.


Tentative conclusion: not significantly different from children raised in heterosexual families and are well adjusted.

LGBT children are at higher risk for things like suicide, substance abuse, promiscuity/practicing unsafe sex, and depression. What family behaviors increase this risk?


Increase risk: hitting, slapping, physical violence; verbal harassment; excluding LGBT youth from family/activities; blocking access to LGBT friends, events, resources; blaming youth for discrimination; pressure to be "normal"; telling youth you are ashamed of them or they shame family; making youth keep LGBT identity a secret in the family; not allowing them to talk about it.

What are some of the parenting challenges unique to immigrant families (documented and undocumented)?

Separation from family and loved ones; learning a new language, social norms, cultural expectations; parents and children ten to acculturate at different rates and to different degrees; gradual chaining of spousal roles is common and can often cause marital stress.


Undocumented families: fear/threat of deportation; limited opportunities in many states for undocumented children; limited access to government benefits; disproportionate victimization.

LGBT children are at higher risk for things like suicide, substance abuse, promiscuity/practicing unsafe sex, and depression. What family factors reduce this risk?

Talking with youth about their LGBT identity; pressing affection during "coming out"; supporting identity even if it's uncomfortable; advocating for the youth when he/she mistreated; require that other family members respect the LGBT child; bring youth to LGBT events; connect child with LGBT role model; welcome child's LGBT friends; support gender expression.

Co-provider (or dual-earner) marriages

Both married partners are employed outside the home.

Compressed work week

work period in which employees perform a full-time job in less tan five days of standard eight (or nine) hour shifts, such as in four days of ten hours each.

flextime

flexible time; flexible working hours or any schedule that gives one some choices in working hours.

job-sharing

the sharing of one full-time job by two coworkers.

leisure gap

the "second shift" for women means a leisure gap between husbands and wives, as women sacrifice leisure and sleep to accomplish unpaid family work.

parental leave

leave of absences from a job for a parent to care for a new baby.

responsive workplace

a work setting in which job conditions are designed to allow employees to meet their family responsibilities more easily.

second shift

the housework and child care that employed women do after returning home from their jobs.

telecommuting

Working at home while in telecommunication contact- by internet, phone, and fax- with the office

how has the participation of women in the labor force changed over the last 50 years?

Common for women to work outside the hom from young adulthood to retirement.


38% wives out earn their husbands.

how does a job differ from a career?

Careers hold the promise of advancement and demand a high degree of commitment.


Jobs are short term, careers are long term.

what are the work/family options for two-earner marriages with children? What are some of the pros and cons of each?

FIND

How has the participation of women and men in household chores and/or childcare changed over the past 50 years?

Women still do the majority of housework but men are doing more housework and childcare than previously reported; everyone is doing eless housework overall; more meals are eaten away from home; or hiring housekeeping services.

provide examples of policies of a responsive workplace.

Family friend workplace policies - policies supportive of employee efforts to combine family and work commitments


Parental/family leave; on-site daycare; sick-child care; subsidies for child care services; flexible schedules; re-entry support; support groups; workplace seminars and counseling services.

Family stress

A state of tension that arises when demands test or tax a family's capabilities.

family crisis

A situation in which the usual behavior patterns are ineffective and new ones are called for immediately.

stressors

A precipitating event or events that create stress.

pile-up (stressor overload)

A family may be stressed not just by one serious, chronic problem but also by a series of large or small, related or unrelated stressors that build on one another too rapidly.

vulnerable families

Families that are having difficulties or functioning less effectively before the onset of additional stressors or demands.

resilient families

Families capable of doing well in the face of adversity.

The definition of crisis encompasses three interrelated ideas. What are they?

Crisis involves change.


A crisis is a turning point with the potential for positive effects, negative effects, or both.


A crisis is a time of relative instability.

9 types of stressors and one example of each

Addition of family member: birth; adoption; marriage; remarriage.


Loss of a family member: death; miscarriage; stillbirth.


Ongoing family crisis: unresolved conflict between family members; disagreements in discipline; adult child living with parents.

9 types of stressors continued...

Caring for a dependent, ill, or disabled family member:being responsible for adult or child with mental illness or physical developmental disability.


Demoralizing event: poverty; homelessness; having child placed in foster care; juvenile delinquency or criminal prosecution; scandal family violence; mental illness; incarceration; or suicide.


Sudden, unexpected change: family income or social status; child runaway; job loss; winning the lottery; getting significant promotion.

9 types of stressors continued..

Daily family hassles: balancing work with family demands; working odd hours; being regularly stuck in traffic on long commutes.


Anxieties about children in a culture of fear: kidnappings; school shootings.


Ambiguous loss: catastrophic and unexpected situations [war, kidnapping, incarceration, missing body, chronic mental illness, coma, etc.] AND more common situations [divorce, military deployment, obsession w/ TV or internet]

What are the 3 distinct phases of a family crisis? What are the 3 possible outcomes in terms of family functioning once the crisis has passed?

1. the event that caused the crisis 2. period of disorganization that follows 3. reorganization or recovery phase after the family reaches a low point.


May function at the same level as before; may have been so weakened by the crises that they function only at reduced level (vulnerable families); may have been so stimulated by the crisis to reorganize in a way that makes them more effective (resilient families).

In the ABC-X family crisis model, what do A, B, and C and X each represent?

A (the stressor event) interacting with


B (the family's ability to cope with a crisis) interacting with


C (the family's appraisal of the stressor event) produces X (the crisis).

What are some of the factors that influence how family members define a stressful situation?

The nature of the stressor itself.


The degree of hardship or the kind of problems the stressor creates.


Family's previous successful experience with the crises.


Involves adult family members'' legacies from their childhood.

What are the three types of family crisis-meeting resources?

Personal/Individual - intelligence, problem-solving skills, physical and emotional health.


Family - Family rituals, money.


Community - community based programs to help families adapt to medically related family demands.

What are the characteristics of resilient families?

Positive temperament, Social support, Commitment, time together, adaptability, respect, spirituality, communication, and cohesion.

What factors differentiate resilient families that reorganize creatively/effectively from those who do not?

Positive outlook; spiritual values and support groups; open, supportive communication; adaptability; informal social support; extended family; community resources.

Violence

The threat of or infliction of physical or emotional harm to another

physical violence

(Battering) the infliction or threat of physical harm.

sexual assualt

Any act of intercourse without consent

emotional violence/abuse

Verbal and psychological abuse that inflicts or threatens to inflict emotional distress.

rape

Unwanted sexual penetration, perpetrated by force, by threat of harm, or when the victim is intoxicated or unconscious.

acquaintance rape

Nonconsensual sex between adults who know each other.

date rape

nonconsensual sex between dating partners.

intimate partner violence

physical and or emotional abuse of one partner by another - male or female, married or unmarried, straight or gay, current or former.

aside from different categories of abuse, research Michael Johnson has identified two prevailing kinds of marital violence. Name and describe these.

Patriarchal terrorism - violence by men who feel that they must control "their" women by any means necessary. Women is viewed as "his property."


Common Couple Violence - violence between partners arising from everyday disagreements that have gone too far. Violence is motivated by the need to control the specific situation under dispute.

What are some of the reasons men abuse women? What are some of the reasons women stay with abusive partners?

Men: learned behavior; displaced frustration and aggression at inability to attain a goal; attempt to compensate for feelings of powerlessness; attempt to maintain control over partners trying to become independent in relationship.


Women: fear; cultural norms; love; economic dependence; hopes for change; belief that it's woman's responsibility to keep relationship from failing; childhood experiences w/ domestic violence; low self-esteem.

What factors are often included in women's decision making process to leave or stay with an abusive partner?

Fear; Isolation - abusers often isolate victims from any support systems making them unaware of what they have available to them; Financial Dependence; Guilt and Shame; Emotional and Physical Impairment; Cultural Hurdles for victims of color or non English speaking people

What are the 5 stages of thinking women go through prior to leaving abusive partners?

Experiencing doubts


Turning point (point that affects the woman's motivations, such as a particularly severe beating)


Detachment and reevaluation


Shift in thinking


Breaking free

What are some of the likely explanations for why domestic violence appears to be more common among low-income families?

Greater reluctance of middle income couples to admit to violence


Social welfare agencies may be keeping an eye on poor families.


Frustrations of poverty and unemployment may create stress that lead some men to abuse wives.


Men with more money and education have other ways to control behavior of wives than force.

How does spousal/intimate partner violence affect children?

Health and medical issues.


Emotional issues (depression and anxiety)


PTSD


Prenatal exposure leads to increased risk of aggressive, anxious, depressed, or hyper-active behavior.


Teenage girls more likely to enter violent dating relationships.


Boys twice as likely to become abusers themselves.

What are some examples of physical abuse against children?

Striking child with hand, fist, foot, or object.


Burning a child.


Shaking, pushing, or throwing a child.


Pinching or biting a child.


Pulling child by the hair.

What are some examples of emotional abuse against children?

Verbal abuse.


Withholding affection.


Extreme punishment.


Corruption.

What are some examples of sexual abuse against children?

Behavior involving penetration.


Fondling.


violations of privacy.


Exposing children to adult sexuality.


Exploitation.

What are some examples of child neglect, including physical, educational, and emotional neglect?

Physical: basic needs not met, safety issues in the home, failure to address medical needs, child abandonment.


Educational: allowing chronic truancy, not following through on obtaining services for special needs.


Emotional: inadequate nurturing or affection, permitting child to drink alcohol/use drugs, refusal or delay of psychological care.

What are some known causes or risk factors for child abuse?

Stress, lack of nurturing qualities, immaturity, difficult controlling anger, personal history of abuse, isolation, physical or mental health problems, substance abuse, personal problems.

Describe some of the known effects of child abuse on children's emotional development and behavior.

Problems in school and work, prostitution, teen pregnancy, suicide attempts, criminal or antisocial behavior, substance abuse, eating disorders, spousal abuse.

Describe the three common approaches towards combating family violence/child abuse.

Criminal Justice Approach: approach that believes on or both parents should be held legally responsible.


Therapeutic Approach: strategies include increasing parents' self-esteem & their knowledge about children & involving the community in child rearing.


Social Welfare Approach: overlaps with the first two approaches but takes note of the social, cultural, and economic contexts of child maltreatment to provide services and parent education that may make child abuse less likely.

"No-Fault" Divorce laws

Divorce for marriage breakdown due to irreconcilable differences

Era of restricted divorce

Occurred in western nations until mid 1800s.


marriage is seen as instititutional


Divorce was rare and only granted on the ground of adultery or desertion and usually only granted to men.

Annulment

Ruling that a marriage was never properly formed (occurred adoring the era of restricted divorce)

Era of divorce tolerance

Divorce tolerance occurred from mid 1800s to 1970.


Ground for divorced widened more accessible to women.


Marriage went form economic partnership to emotional partnership.

Era of unrestricted divorce

From 1970s to present.


CA first state to endorse "no fault" divorce: divorce for marriage breakdown due to irreconcilable differences.


by the end of 1980s every western nation and every state in the U.S. adopted the idea.

Legal custody

Grants a parent the right to make important, long-term decisions regarding their child or children. This may include aspects of the child's upbringing such as education, medical, and dental care.

Physical custody

Child custody order to denote the parent with whom a child spends or lives the great majority of time with.

Cooperative parenting

Style of parenting used by families in which conflict is low and parents can effectively communication about their child.

Parallel parenting

Arrangement in which divorce parents are able to co-parent by means of disengaging from each other, and having limited direct contact, in situations where they have demonstrated that they are unable to communicate with each other in a respectful manner.

Understand the trends in the U.S. divorce rate from the early 1900s through today.


What were the periods of greatest increase/decrease? Why?

find

What are the reasons that overall divorce rates have been declining in recent years?

FIND

Although divorce rates have been declining, a significant number of marriages continue to end in divorce. What are the societal and individual risk factors for divorce?

Societal: no fault-legislation; change in attidue towards marriage; fewer employment opportunities for men without a degree; women's employment.


Individual: age at marriage (teen marriage high risk for divorce); premarital cohabitation; Parental divorce; Heterogamy; High hopes (soul mates, love conquers all, a marriage partner should possess every quality; perfect families are always there for us).

As people assess their marriage and possibly contemplate divorce, according to Levinger's model of divorce decisions, they weigh what three factors? What does the research say about each of these factors in terms of how each affects the likelihood of choosing to divorce?

Model suggests that spouses assess their marriage in regards to: rewards to marriage (what am I getting out of this?); alternatives to marriage (what would my life look like without this person?); and barriers to divorce (can I afford divorce?).


When rewards are low, alternatives are appealing, and barriers weak people chose divorce.

Name and describe the 6 stations of divorce

1. Emotional Divorce - loss of affection, trust, and respect for each other and replaces positive emotions with indifference or destructive emotions.


2. Legal Divorce - court ordered termination of a marriage.


3. Economic Divorce - involves settlement of the property.

6 stations of divorce continued...

4. Co Parental Divorce - involves decisions about child custody, hold support, visitation rights, and the ongoing responsibilities of each parent.


5. Community Divorce - each partner reduces or leaves the membership in a common community of relatives and friends.


6. Psychic Divorce - a period of mourning, means that you separate from your former partner emotionally and are free from his/her influence.

Name and describe the 4 general types of child custody arrangements after divorce. What would be the potential advantages or disadvantages of each?

Sole Custody - children live with one parent, who is solely responsible for raising them, and the other parent has legally specified visitation rights


Joint Custody - children divide time between both parents. [Joint legal - children with with one parent, but both share decisions about their child's upbringing] and [joint physical - children lives with both parents, dividing their time on a more or less equal basis between the separate households]

Name and describe the 4 general types of child custody arrangements after divorce. What would be the potential advantages or disadvantages of each CONTINUED...

Split Custody - children are divided between two parents.


Third Party Custody - child custody is awarded to a grandparent, other relative, or some other adult instead of the parents.

What does research say about the immediate (short-term) effects of divorce on children?

Children in high-conflict families report better emotional well being and feelings of relief.


Guilt, anger, depression, anxiety, withdrawal.


Less social and school competence.


Health problems (more likely to experience eating problems/disorders)

What were the main findings of Wallerstein's landmark research study on the effects of divorce on children? What are some of the limitations or criticisms of her study?

Children go through a painful struggle because of the lack of healthy role models; children have less social competence, greater risk for drug and alcohol abuse and less apt to attend college.


Examined too few families and claiming that they were representative of all divorces. Clinical sample was composed of people who asked for help dealing with problems associated with divorce; Family SES; lack of control group

Contemporary research on divorce suggests that the long-term effects of divorce on children depend on several factors. What are they?

Parental conflict and ability to parent/co-parent; parent child relationships after divorce; economic factors; stability for children; children's individual characteristics.

How does divorce typically impact the mother's standard of living?

Studies find that ex-wives experience a 27% decline in their standard of living; 40% lose their family income.

Binuclear family

Family in which former spouses and children live in two different households.

Blended families

(Stepfamily); created when two people marry and one or both brings into the household a child or children from a previous marriage.

Remarriages

find

Stepism

an attitude of prejudice and discrimination; it assumes that stepfamilies are inferior to biological families.

Intimate outsider role

Person who plays a role in family that is between parent and trusted friend.

How might dating before remarriage differ from that of dating before first marriage?

find

According to researchers, how do remarriages compare to first marriages in terms of happiness, satisfaction, and stability?

Research shows little difference in spouses' overall well being or in marital happiness between first and later unions. There is more equity or fairness in remarriages than in first marriages. About 60% of remarriages end in divorce, compared with about half of all first marriages.

How do first unions with children differ from stepfamilies?

One biological parent is elsewhere; there is a complicated supra family system; children may have more than two parenting figures; children may be members of more than one household; there may be less parental control because there is a influential parent elsewhere; stepparent is not legally related to child; long integration process; balance of power if different; ambiguous family boundaries

What are the 3 areas in which the stepfamily's ambiguous norms are most apparent? Examples.

Boundaries - whose responsibility is whose? Does stepparent go to parent-teacher conferences, tuck children in, etc.


Relationships to Kin - what is the relationship between stepparent and extended family?


Family Law - a stepparent has very few rights.

What are the general stages in becoming a blended family?

Turbulent Early Phase - step 1 (fantasy), step 2 (immersion), step 3 (awareness).


The Middle Phase - step 4 (mobilization), step 5 (action).


Later Stages - step 6 (contact), step 7 (resolution).

How does remarriage affect children's outcomes? What are some of the factors that contribute to positive and negative outcomes?

Most children in stepfamilies do not demonstrate serious problems stemming from remarriage. Younger the child the better the adjustment; children's wellbeing largely depend on the quality of the relationships and communication, regardless of emily structure; and the ability of the biological parents' ability to co-parent effectively.

(from textbook) list the several steps towards becoming a successful stepfamily. Describe these.

Harmonize your finances; develop realistic expectations; let everyone mourn their losses; maintain the primacy of the relationship with your new partner; treat children he same way and give them their own space; don't rush being a stepparent; cooperate with the absent parent and other kin; develop your own family rituals; think of the stepparent on mothers/fathers day.