Gre Personality And Abnormal Psychology

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William Sheldon

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Attempted to relate somatotype to personality type

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somatotype

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body type

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What are the 3 somatotypes that were characterized by William Sheldon?

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1. endomorphy

2. mesomorphy

3. ectomorphy

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endomorphy

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Body type that is soft and spherical.

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mesomorphy

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Body type that is hard, muscular, and rectangular.

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ectomorphy

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Body type that is thin, fragile, and lightly muscled.

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E.G. Boring

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Historian of psychology who suggested that development of the field was due not to the efforts of great people primarily, but to Zeitgeist.

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Zeitgeist

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The changing spirit of the times.

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Edward Titchener

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Student of Wundt who founded a psychology laboratory in Ithaca, NY; used introspection to form the system of psychology called structuralism.

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structuralism

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System of thought that refers to breaking consciousness down into its elements.

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What famous names are associated with structuralism?

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Edward Titchener

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functionalism

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System of thought that was concerned with studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.

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behaviorism

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The theory that psychology should be based on the study of behavior and that personality development is behavior learned as people interact with their environment.

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Gestalt psychology

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The school of thought that views the whole as larger than the sum of its parts; named from the German word meaning "pattern."

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cognitive psychology

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The study of subjects such as learning, memory, forgetting, and language.

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psychoanalysis

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An intensive, long-term treatment for uncovering repressed memories, motives, and conflicts stemming from problems in psychosexual development; the goal of therapy is to gain insight into the repressed material.

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humanism

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A system of thought that arose in opposition to both psychoanalysis and behaviorism, and is characterized by a belief in the notion of free will and the idea that people should be considered as wholes rather than in terms of stimuli and responses or instincts.

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What famous names are associated with humanism?

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Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers

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Philippe Pinel

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1792; Placed in charge of an asylum in Paris that was marked by mistreatment of its patients. Instituted reforms that spread to other asylums.

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Dorothea Dix

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1841- 1881; A zealous advocate of treating hospitalized mentally ill patients in a humane way.

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general paresis

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A disorder caused by syphilis and characterized by delusions of grandeur, mental deterioration, eventual paralysis, and death; was an important advance in the understanding of abnormal psychology because it was one of the first demonstrations of a mental disorder having a known physiological cause.

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Cerletti and Bini

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1938; Introduced the use of electroshock therapy in the belief that it could cure schizophrenia.

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prefrontal lobotomies

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1935 - 1955; A surgical procedure in which the frontal lobes of the brain are severed from the rest of the brain tissue; intended as a treatment for schizophrenia.

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What landmark change in psychiatric treatment occurred in the 1950s?

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The introduction of psychotropic medications, beginning with antipsychotics.

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Emil Kraepelin

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1883; Published the first textbook in which mental disorders were classified based on patterns of symptoms. This was a precursor for the DSM.

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psychoanalytic theory

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Postulates the existence of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality.

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What famous names are associated with psychodynamic theory?

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Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson

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What were the 3 major systems that make up the structural dynamic model of psychoanalytic theory according to Freud?

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1. id

2. ego

3. superego

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id

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The reservoir of all psychic energy and consist of everything psychological that is present at birth

Functions according to the pleasure principle

Its primary process is its response to frustration operating under the dictum of "obtain satisfaction now, not later."

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pleasure principle

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The aim to immediately relieve tension.

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wish-fulfillment

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The mental image of a desired object; used by the id to reduce tension temporarily.

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ego

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The organization of the id; its secondary process operates according to the reality principle.

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reality principle

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The aim to postpone the pleasure principle until the actual object that will satisfy the need has been discovered or produced.

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How do the id and ego work together?

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The give and take of the ego in response to the demands of the id and secondary process with reality promotes the growth and elaboration of psychological processes.

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superego

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The moral branch of personality which strives for perfection.

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What are the two subsystems of the superego?

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1. conscience

2. ego-ideal

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conscience

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Incorporates whatever the child's caregivers say is improper and for which the child is punished.

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ego-ideal

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Incorporates whatever the child's caregivers approve of and for which the child is rewarded.

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instinct

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An innate psychological representation (wish) of a biological need; the propelling aspects of psychoanalytic theory.

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defense mechanisms

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The ego's recourse to releasing excessive pressures due to anxiety.

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According to psychoanalytic theory, what are the 2 common characteristics of all defense mechanisms?

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1. They deny, falsify, or distort reality.

2. They operate unconsciously.

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What are the 8 defensive mechanisms in psychoanalytic theory?

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1. repression

2. suppression

3. projection

4. reaction formation

5. rationalization

6. regression

7. sublimation

8. displacement

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repression

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The unconscious forgetting of anxiety-producing memories.

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suppression

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A deliberate, conscious form of forgetting.

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projection

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The attribution of a person's forbidden urges to others.

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reaction formation

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The warding off of a repressed wish by its diametrical opposite.

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rationalization

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The process of developing socially acceptable explanations for inappropriate behaviors or thoughts.

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regression

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A person's reverting to an earlier stage of development in response to a traumatic event.

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sublimation

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The transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior.

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displacement

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The discharging of pent-up feelings onto objects and people less dangerous than those objects or people causing the feelings.

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Carl Jung

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A contemporary of Freud who broke with him over the concept of libido; suggested that the unconscious could be divided into personal unconscious and the collective unconscious, with archetypes being in the collective unconscious.

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collective unconscious

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A powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be the residue of the experiences of our early ancestors and containing archetypes.

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archetypes

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Thoughts or images that have an emotional element.

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What are the 5 major Jungian archetypes?

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1. persona

2. anima

3. animus

4. shadow

5. self

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persona

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A mask that is adopted by a person in response to the demands of social convention;

Originates from social interactions in which the assumption of a social role has served a useful purpose to humankind throughout history.

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anima

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The feminine archetype that helps us understand gender including feminine behaviors in men and masculine behaviors in women.

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animus

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The masculine archetype that helps us understand gender including feminine behaviors in men and masculine behaviors in women.

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shadow

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The archetype that consists of the animal instincts that humans inherited in their evolution from lower forms of life

Responsible for the appearance in consciousness and behavior of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions.

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self

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A person's striving for unity and is the point of intersection between the collective unconscious and the conscious; symbolized by the mandala.

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What are the 2 major orientations of personality according to Jung?

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1. extroversion

2. introversion

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extroversion

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An orientation toward the external, objective world.

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introversion

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An orientation toward the inner, subjective world.

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According to Jung, what 4 psychological functions interact in dynamic ways to form personality?

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1. thinking

2. feeling

3. sensing

4. intuiting

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Alfred Adler

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Psychodynamic theorist best known for the concept of the inferiority complex

Theorized that striving toward superiority drives the personality, which leads to endeavors that are beneficial for all people.

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inferiority complex

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An individual's sense of incompleteness, sense of imperfection, physical inferiorities, and social disabilities.

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creative self

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The force by which each individual shapes his or her uniqueness and makes his or her own personality.

Part of Adler's theory of personality.

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style of life

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Represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority; influenced a great deal by the family environment.

Part of Adler's theory of personality.

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fictional finalism

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The notion that an individual is motivated more by his or her expectations of the future than by past experiences.

Part of Adler's theory of personality.

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Karen Horney

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Psychodynamic theorist who postulated that the neurotic personality is governed by one of ten needs which is directed toward making life and interactions bearable.

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According to Horney, in what 4 respects do neurotic needs not resemble healthy ones?

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1. They are disproportionate in intensity.

2. They are indiscriminate in application.

3. They partially disregard reality.

4. They have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety.

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According to Horney, what 3 strategies does a child use in his relationship with others to overcome basic anxiety and attain a degree of security?

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1. Moving toward people to obtain the good will of people who provide security.

2. Moving against people or fighting them to obtain the upper hand.

3. Moving away or withdrawing from people.

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Anna Freud

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Sigmund Freud's daughter and the founder of ego psychology.

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ego psychology

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A branch of psychoanalytic theory that emphasizes the role of the ego as autonomous.

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Erik Erikson

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An ego psychologist who expanded Sigmund Freud's stages to cover the entire lifespan and proposed that even negative events or conflicts can have positive effects on adult personality.

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object-relations theory

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Focuses on the creation and development of internalized objects (symbolic representations) that make up a significant part of a young child's personality.

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What famous names are associated with object-relations theory?

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Melanie Klein, D. W. Winnicott, Margaret Mahler, and Otto Kernberg.

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hypnosis

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Used by Freud too free repressed thoughts from the patient's unconscious, but was later abandoned for alternative methods.

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free association

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A technique whereby the client says whatever comes to his or her conscious mind regardless of how person, painful, or seemingly irrelevant it may appear to be. Through this task, an analyst and patient together reconstruct the nature of the client's original conflict.

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dream interpretation

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Under the assumption that the defenses are relaxed and the mind is freer to express forbidden wishes and desires during dream states, the patient's dreams are analyzed to form an understanding of unconscious conflicts.

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resistance

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An unwillingness or inability to relate to certain thoughts, motives, or experiences

Major part of dream interpretation.

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transference

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Attributing to the therapist attitudes and feelings that developed in the patient's relations with significant others in the past.

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countertransference

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The experience of the therapist of a full array of emotions toward the patient at various points during treatment.

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neo-Freudian approaches

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Treatments that place much more emphasis on current interpersonal relationships and life situations than one childhood experience and psychosexual development.

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John Dollard and Neal Miller

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Behaviorist theorists who attempted to study psychoanalytic concepts within a behaviorist framework

Also known for their work on approach-avoidant conflict.

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B.F. Skinner

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Behaviorist who considered personality to be a collection of behavior that happens to have been sufficiently reinforced to persist.

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Albert Bandura

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Behaviorist who is known for his social learning theory; did modeling experiments using the "Bobo doll."

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Social learning theory

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Theory that learning occurs both through reinforcement of one's own behaviors and through vicarious reinforcement.

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vicarious reinforcement

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Observing other people's behavior being reinforced.

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What famous names are associated with behaviorism?

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B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura, John Dollard, Neal Miller, and Martin Seligman

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Martin Seligman

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Developed a theory of learned helplessness and extrapolated this to the realm of human depression and locus of control.

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learned helplessness

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A theory developed by Martin Seligman that proposes that individuals who consistently face difficult situations from which they cannot escape learn to feel powerless to overcome their problems.

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behavior therapy

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Therapy aimed at correcting faulty coping patterns that individuals have learned through reinforcement of maladaptive behavior through interactions with people and the environment.

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cognitive-behavior therapy

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Therapy that aims to change and restructure patient's distorted and/or irrational thoughts.

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Beck's cognitive therapy for depression

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A client is asked to write down negative thoughts about himself, figure out why they are unjustified, and come up with more realistic and less destructive cognitions to replace them.

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Albert Ellis's rational-emotive therapy (RET)

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Therapy aimed helping people recognize and change irrational ways of thinking.

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symptom substitution

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Assumption by psychoanalysts that relieving one symptom of a disorder will cause another one to emerge due to the fact that the underlying cause is still present.

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What famous names are associated with humanism?

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Kurt Lewin, Abraham Maslow, George Kelly, Carl Rogers, and Victor Frankl.

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Kurt Lewin's field theory

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A theory heavily influenced by Gestalt psychology that supposes that personality can be divided into ever-changing systems that, under optimal conditions, function in an integrated fashion.

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Abraham Maslow

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A humanist theorist who is known for his hierarchy of human motives and for his views on self-actualization.

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

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The theory that people strive for higher-level needs only when lower-level needs are met. In order from lowest to highest, those needs are food, shelter, security, belongingness, love, esteem, cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and self-actualization.

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self-actualization

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According to Maslow, the highest order of need to realize one's fullest potential; most people do not reach this level.

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peak experiences

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Profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual; more likely to be experienced by self-actualized people according to Maslow.

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George Kelly

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Humanism theorist who hypothesized the notion of the individual as a scientist who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life.

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humanism-existential therapies

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Therapies that tend to emphasize the process of finding meaning in one's life by making one's own choices by facilitation exploration into a client's thoughts and feelings.

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Carl Rogers

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Humanist psychologist who is known for a psychotherapy technique known as client-centered therapy, person-centered therapy, or nondirective therapy in which the client is seen as being able to reflect upon his or her problems, make choices, take positive action, and help determine his or her own destiny.

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unconditional positive regard

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A therapy climate in which understanding is provided to facilitate an atmosphere in which a patient is comfortable being himself or herself.

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Victor Frankl

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A survivor of Nazi concentration camps who viewed mental illness and maladjustment as the product of a life of meaninglessness.

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type theorists

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Attempt to characterize people according to specific types of personalities.

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trait theorists

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Attempt to ascertain the fundamental dimensions of personality.

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Type A personality

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A personality type characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive, that is correlated with heart disease, and is most prevalent among middle- and upper-class men.

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Type B personality

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A personality type characterized by behavior that is generally laid back and relaxed.

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What are some famous names associated with trait/type theorism?

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Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, Gordon Allport, David McClelland, Herman Witkin, and Julian Rotter.

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Raymond Cattell

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A trait theorist who used factor analysis to measure personality and attempted to account for the underlying factors that determine personality and was able to identify 16 of them.

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Hans Eysenck

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A trait theorist who used factor analysis to measure personality and proposed two main dimensions on which personalities differ.

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On what 2 main dimensions did Hans Eysenck hypothesize personalities differ?

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1. introversion-extroversion 2. emotional stability-neuroticism

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Gordon Allport

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Trait theorist known for the concept of functional autonomy, distinguishing between idiographic and nomothetic approaches to personality, and distinguishing 3 basic types of traits.

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What were Allport's 3 basic types of traits?

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1. cardinal

2. central

3. secondary

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cardinal traits

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According to Allport, traits around which a person organizes his or her life; not developed by everyone.

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central traits

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According to Allport, major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer.

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secondary traits

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According to Allport, personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence.

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functional autonomy

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A given activity or form of behavior may become an end or goal in itself, regardless of its original reason for existence.

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idiographic approach to personality

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Studying personalities using individual case studies.

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nomothetic approach to personality

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Studying personalities using groups of individuals and trying to find their commonalities.

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David McClelland

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Trait theorist who identified a trait referred to as the need for achievement (nAch)

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need for achievement (nAch)

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People high in this trait tend to be concerned with achievement, have pride in their accomplishments, avoid high risks/low risks, set realistic goals, and discontinue striving if goal success is unlikely.

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Herman Witkin

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Trait theorist who studied field-dependence and field-independence using the rod-and-frame test.

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field-independence

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According to Witkin, the capacity to make specific responses to perceived specific stimuli.

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field-dependence

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According to Witkin, a more diffuse response to a perceived mass of somewhat undifferentiated stimuli.

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Julian Rotter

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Trait theorist who studied external vs. internal locus of control.

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internal locus of control

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A person's belief that he can control his own destiny; related to higher self-esteem.

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external locus of control

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A person's belief that outside events and chance control destiny.

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Machiavellianism

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A personality trait that refers to someone who is manipulative and deceitful.

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androgeny

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A term drawn from Sandra Bem's theory on gender identity to describe a state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine; this concept underscores the fact that masculinity and femininity must be two separate dimensions if an individual can score high on both.

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Walter Mischel

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Critic of trait theories of personality who believes that human behavior is largely determined by the characteristics of the situation.

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DSM-IV

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; a classification scheme that is based on atheoretical descriptions of symptoms.

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Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)

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A scale that rages from 0 to 100 that indicates the clinician's judgment of the client's overall functioning level.

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attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADD/HD)

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Disorder characterized by developmentally atypical inattention and/or impulsivity/hyperactivity which manifests itself in excessive motor activity and inability to delay gratification, impatience, and frequently interrupting others

3-5% of school children

More prevalent in males than females

Symptoms attenuate during adolescence.

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autistic disorder

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Disorder characterized by lack of responsiveness to others, gross impairment of social skills, and repetitive behaviors

Prevalent in two to five out of 10,000 individuals.

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Tourette's disorder

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A tic disorder that is characterized by multiple motor tics and one or more vocal tics which are sudden, recurrent, and stereotyped;

Prevalent in four to five out of 10,000 and is lifelong, though remission can occur.

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schizophrenia

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A disorder characterized by gross distortions of reality and disturbances in the content and form of thought, perception, and affect

Name means "split mind"

Manifests in delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, inappropriate affect, and/or catatonic behavior.

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dementia praecox

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Term for schizophrenia that was used until the disorder was renamed by Eugen Bleuler in 1911.

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positive symptoms

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Behaviors, thoughts, or affects added to normal behavior such as delusions, disorganized speech, and disorganized or catatonic behavior.

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What 2 dimensions are positive symptoms classified under?

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1. psychotic

2. disorganized

These may have different causes.

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negative symptoms

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Symptoms that involve the absence of normal or desired behavior such as flat affect.

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delusions

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False beliefs that are discordant with reality and that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.

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delusions of reference

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Involve the belief of an individual that others are talking about him or her or that common elements in the environment are directed at him or her.

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delusions of persecution

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Involve the belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened.

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delusions of grandeur

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Involve the belief by the patient that he or she is a remarkable person such as an inventor or historical person.

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delusions of thought broadcasting

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The belief that one's thoughts are being transmitted directly from one's head to the external world.

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delusions of thought insertion

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The belief that thoughts are being transmitted into one's head.

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hallucinations

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Perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality

The most common form is auditory.

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disorganized thought

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Characterized by the loosening of associations, typically exhibited in the absence of linear thinking, word salad, or neologisms.

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neologisms

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New words that are invented by the speaker.

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blunting

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A severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression.

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flat affect

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Virtually no signs of affective expression.

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inappropriate affect

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Affect that is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech or ideation.

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catatonic behavior

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Extreme spontaneous movement that is bizarre, useless, and not caused by external stimuli.

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prodromal phase

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Exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences prior to diagnosis of schizophrenia.

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active phase

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The period following the prodromal phase in which symptomatic behavior is exhibited.

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process schizophrenia

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The slow and insidious development of schizophrenia and for which the prognosis for recovery is poor.

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reactive schizophrenia

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An intense and sudden onset of symptoms of schizophrenia and for which the prognosis for recovery is better.

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What are the 5 subtypes of schizophrenia?

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1. catatonic

2. paranoid

3.disorganized

4. undifferentiated

5. residual

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catatonic schizophrenia

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Schizophrenia characterized by a disturbance in motor behavior which manifests in alterations between extreme withdrawal of behavior and excited or excessive movement.

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paranoid schizophrenia

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Schizophrenia characterized by a preoccupation with one or more delusions or frequent auditory hallucinations but a relative preservation of cognitive and affective functioning.

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disorganized schizophrenia

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Schizophrenia characterized by flat or inappropriate affect and disorganized speech and behavior;

Formerly called hebephrenic schizophrenia.

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undifferentiated schizophrenia

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The type of schizophrenia that is diagnosed when the general criteria for other categories is not met.

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residual schizophrenia

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The diagnosis of schizophrenia that is used when there has been a previous schizophrenic episode but no positive psychotic symptoms are currently displayed, although patients may still show disturbances and often negative symptoms.

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dopamine thesis

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The leading explanation for the etiology of schizophrenia that suggests that the delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from an excess of dopamine activity in certain areas in the brain or that there is a normal amount of dopamine acting on overly sensitive or too numerous receptors that receive dopamine.

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double-bind hypothesis

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An explanation for the etiology of schizophrenia that suggests that contradictory and mutually incompatible messages from the patient's primary caregiver leads a child to see his or her perceptions of reality as unreliable which then leads to disorganized thought as an adult; not widely supported, though faulty family communication may play some explanatory role.

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major depressive disorder

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Characterized by at least one major depressive episode lasting at least two weeks during which there is a prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood or loss or interest in all or almost all activities causing significant distress and/or impairment of functioning. Other symptoms can include appetite disturbances, substantial weight changes, sleep disturbances, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness, or excessive guilt.

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bipolar disorder

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A major type of mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania.

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manic episodes

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Characterized by abnormal and persistence elevated mood, accompanied b a decreased need for sleep as well as flight of ideas, increased self-esteem, impaired judgment, lowered sexual restraints, and impatience with attempting to control impulses. These episodes have a rapid onset and briefer duration than depressive episodes.

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Bipolar I

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Characterized by manic episodes.

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Bipolar II

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Characterized by hypomania.

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hypomania

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Characterized by increased energy and optimism but without significant impairment of functioning or psychotic features.

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dysthymic and cyclothymic disorders

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Disruptions in mood regulation that do not meet the criteria for major depressive or bipolar disorder, though symptoms are similar.

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catecholamine theory of depression

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Also known as the monoamine theory of depression, a theory that suggests that too much norepinephrine and serotonin leads to mania while too little leads to depression.

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phobia

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An irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it.

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specific phobia

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A phobia in which anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation.

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claustrophobia

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An irrational fear of closed places.

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acrophobia

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An irrational fear of heights.

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cynophobia

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An irrational fear of dogs.

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agoraphobia

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An irrational fear of being in open places or in situations where escape might be difficult.

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social phobia

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Characterized by anxiety that is due to social situations.

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obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

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Characterized by repeated obsessions that produce tension and/or compulsions that cause significant impairment in a person's life.

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somatoform disorders

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A disorder in which there is a physical presence of symptoms that suggest a medical condition but cannot be fully explained by a medical condition.

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conversion disorders

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Characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions; formerly referred to as a hysteria.

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hypochondriasis

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A disorder in which a person is preoccupied with fears that he or she has a serious disease even after complete medical exams have shown otherwise.

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dissociative disorders

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Conditions in which a person avoids stress by escaping from his or her identity, though a sense of reality is otherwise in tact.

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dissociative amnesia

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Characterized by an inability to recall past experience which is not due to a neurological disorder.

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dissociative fugue

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Amnesia that accompanies a sudden, unexpected move away from one's home or location of usual daily activities and causes a person to be confused about his or her identity and possibly to adopt a new one.

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dissociative identity disorder

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Formerly called multiple personality disorder; Characterized by the presence of two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behavior

Caused by the failure of components of identity to integrate and often the result of physical or sexual abuse in childhood.

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depersonalization disorder

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A disorder in which a person fees detached like an outside observer of his or her mental processes and/or behavior while otherwise having an intact sense of reality.

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anorexia nervosa

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Characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight, a distorted body image, a belief that he or she is overweight even when emaciated, and- in females- amenorrhea.

90% of cases are female and 10% of hospitalized cases result in death from secondary causes.

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bulimia nervosa

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Characterized binge-eating accompanied by excessive attempts to compensate for it by purging, fasting, or excessive exercising.

Individuals tend to maintain a minimally normal body weight; 90% of cases are female.

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personality disorder

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A pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress and/or impaired function in at least two of the following- cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control.

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schizoid personality disorder

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A pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression.

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narcissistic personality disorder

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Characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, an exhibitionistic need for constant admirations and attention, and disturbances in interpersonal relationships such as feelings of entitlement.

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borderline personality disorder

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Characterized by a pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image and often manifests in identity disturbance, intense fear of abandonment, suicide attempts/actions, and/or self-mutilation.

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antisocial personality disorder

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A pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others as evidenced by repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, and/or a lack of remorse for said actions.

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diathesis-stress model of mental illness

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A framework for explaining the causes of mental disorders through the interaction of biological propensities with environmental triggers.

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primary prevention

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Efforts to seek out and eradicate conditions that foster mental illness and to establish the conditions that foster mental health.

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David Rosenhan

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1973; Studied whether or not it was possible to be judged sane while hospitalized for mental illness by devising an experiment in which participants were hospitalized for reports of auditory hallucinations and otherwise behaved normally during treatment; Demonstrated the effect of a "mental illness" label on interpretations of behavior.

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Thomas Szasz

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Known for his book The Myth of Mental Illness, an outspoken critic of labelling people as "mentally ill."