Geol 105 Final Exam

Front 1

geological cycle

Back 1

physical, chemical and biological processes that produce earth materials necessary for our survival

Front 2

subgroups of geological cycle

Back 2

-tectonic cycle
-rock cycle
-hydrologic cycle
-biogeochemical cycle

Front 3

tectonic cycle

Back 3

-involves the creation and destruction of tectonic plates
-deforms Earth's crust and produce ocean basins, continents, and mountains

Front 4

rock cycle

Back 4

-largest of geological sub cycles
-depends on tectonic cycle for heat and energy
-depends on biogeochemical cycle for materials
-depends on hydrologic cycle for water

Front 5

what does the rock cycle create?

Back 5

sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, igneous rocks

Front 6

hydrologic cycle

Back 6

-movement of water from the oceans to the atmosphere and back again
-driven by solar energy (sun)

Front 7

how does the hydrologic cycle operate?

Back 7

-by way of: evaporation, precipitation, surface runoff and subsurface flow.
-water is stored in different compartments along the way

Front 8

biogeochemical cycle

Back 8

the transfer or cycling of a chemical element or elements through the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

Front 9

atmosphere

Back 9

layer of gases surrounding the Earth

Front 10

lithosphere (geosphere)

Back 10

Earth's rocky outer layer

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hydrosphere

Back 11

oceans, lakes, rivers and groundwater

Front 12

biosphere

Back 12

part of the Earth where life (we) exist(s)

Front 13

hazards are predictable from scientific evaluation

Back 13

hazardous events and processes can be monitored and mapped, and their future activity predicted, on the basis of frequency of past events, patterns in their occurrence and types of precursor events

Front 14

risk analysis

Back 14

estimating the probability that an event will occur

Front 15

hazardous events that used to produce disasters are now producing catastrophes

Back 15

as a result of increased human population and intervention in nature, hazardous events are now worse

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uniformitarianism

Back 16

the present is the key to the past

Front 17

environmental unity

Back 17

one action causes others in a chain of actions and events

Front 18

minerals

Back 18

naturally occurring substances with defined physical and chemical properties

Front 19

properties of minerals

Back 19

hardness, specific gravity, fracture, cleavage, crystal form, color, luster

Front 20

hardness

Back 20

-resistance to scratching
-related to the size, spacing and strength of bonding of the atoms within the mineral

Front 21

relative hardness (Mohs Scale)

Back 21

1-10 scale of hardness invented by Austrian mineralogist Friedrich Mohs

Front 22

specific gravity

Back 22

density of a mineral compared with the density of water

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cleavage

Back 23

minerals that break along smooth, planar surfaces

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crystal form

Back 24

geometric shape taken on by the mineral when crystalized

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fracture

Back 25

mineral that when broken do no show cleavage

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color

Back 26

mineral may have one or many colors

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luster

Back 27

the way light is reflected of the mineral

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hazard

Back 28

natural process that is a threat to human life or property

Front 29

disaster

Back 29

-hazardous event over a limited time in a defined area
-10 or more people killed
-100 or more people affected

Front 30

catastrophe

Back 30

massive disaster that requires significant amount of money and/or time to recover

Front 31

most common elements in Earth's crust

Back 31

-oxygen (46%)
-silicon (27%)
-calcium, aluminum, iron and magnesium (few % each)

Front 32

rock

Back 32

aggregate of one or more minerals

Front 33

igneous rock

Back 33

form when magma (molten rock) cools and crystallizes

Front 34

extrusive igneous rock (volcanic)

Back 34

cool on surface

Front 35

intrusive igneous rock (plutonic)

Back 35

cool below surface

Front 36

sedimentary rock

Back 36

rocks exposed at the Earth surface that are weathered, broken down into small pieces and then buried and compacted together

Front 37

metamorphic rock

Back 37

pre-existing rocks that are subject to increased temperatures and/or pressure and as a result changed slightly

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law of original horizontality

Back 38

sedimentary rocks are deposited in flat layers

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law of superposition

Back 39

younger sedimentary rocks overlie older sedimentary rocks

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law of lateral continuity

Back 40

isolated segments of sedimentary rocks were originally laterally continuous

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law of inclusions

Back 41

rock fragments have to exist (be older) to be included in another sedimentary rocks

Front 42

law of cross-cutting relationships

Back 42

geological events that cut across pre-existing rocks are younger than the rocks they cut

Front 43

most serious coastal hazards

Back 43

strong coastal currents, coastal erosion, storm surge, tsunamis

Front 44

what generates waves?

Back 44

offshore winds

Front 45

contributing factors to wave size and shape

Back 45

-velocity or speed of the wind
-duration of the wind
-distance the wind blows across the water surface (fetch)

Front 46

rogue wave

Back 46

wave much larger than the other sets of waves that arrive onshore

Front 47

headlands

Back 47

small rocky peninsulas on irregular coastlines

Front 48

wave period

Back 48

length of time required for one wavelength to pass an observer

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beach

Back 49

landform consisting of loose material, such as sand and gravel

Front 50

where do sea cliffs occur?

Back 50

seashore

Front 51

where do bluffs occur?

Back 51

lakeshore

Front 52

littoral transport

Back 52

sand movement that occurs parallel to the shoreline in the swash and surf zones

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longshore drift

Back 53

movement of sand follows the longshore current

Front 54

relative sea level

Back 54

position of the sea at the shore

Front 55

eustatic sea level

Back 55

global sea level

Front 56

how are rip currents formed

Back 56

when series of large waves pile ip water between the longshore bar and the swash zone, water does not recede the way it came in, instead concentrated in narrow zones

Front 57

tides

Back 57

daily change in sea-level due to the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon

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large tidal range

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strong tidal currents

Front 59

beach spits

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sand projection into bays and inlets caused by longshore drift

Front 60

estuaries

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mixed tidal and river environments

Front 61

washover fans

Back 61

when storms wash over entire sand barrier and redistribute sand landward

Front 62

seawalls

Back 62

structures built on land parallel to the coastline to help slow erosion and protect buildings from damage

Front 63

riprap

Back 63

large stone blocks used as a seawall

Front 64

groins

Back 64

linear structures placed perpendicular to the shore to slow beach erosion

Front 65

beach nourishment

Back 65

process of extracting sand from the ocean floor and placing it onto the beach

Front 66

breakwater

Back 66

designed to intercept waves and provide a protected area or harbor for ships

Front 67

jetties

Back 67

built in pairs perpendicular to the shore at the mouth of a river or entrance to an inlet to keep a ship or boat channel open with minimal dredging

Front 68

climate

Back 68

-expected weather conditions
-defined locally, regionally, and globally

Front 69

factors of global climate

Back 69

-driven by solar heating
-balance of energy retained on earth vs. returned to space
-movement of air masses
-ocean surface currents
-jet streams

Front 70

jet streams

Back 70

-polar jet
-subtropical jet

Front 71

multi year oscillations

Back 71

-El Nino: southern oscillation
-arctic oscillation

Front 72

El Nino

Back 72

change in air pressure and sea surface temperatures in the pacific

Front 73

arctic oscillation

Back 73

change in pressure over arctic and jet stream patterns

Front 74

how we study past temperatures?

Back 74

-data
-tree rings
-sediments
-ice cores
-fossils

Front 75

global warming

Back 75

observed increase in the average temperature of the near-surface land and ocean environments of Earth during the past 50 years

Front 76

greenhouse effect

Back 76

the trapping of heat in the Earth's atmosphere

Front 77

climate forcing

Back 77

imposed change of the Earth's energy balances

Front 78

solar forcing

Back 78

solar output varies over time (typically 11 year cycle)

Front 79

orbital forcing

Back 79

changes in shape of orbit and tilt of Earth change the amount of solar energy received

Front 80

tectonic forcing

Back 80

location of landmasses affect ocean circulation and continental ice sheets

Front 81

volcanic forcing

Back 81

after an eruption aerosols are hurled into the air that reflect the suns energy and causes a net cooling effect

Front 82

anthropogenic forcing

Back 82

human processes that causes global warming

Front 83

albedo

Back 83

measure of reflection

Front 84

high albedo

Back 84

-high reflection
-more snow and ice

Front 85

ocean conveyor

Back 85

exchange of warm surface water and cold deep water

Front 86

fossils and temperature

Back 86

location of past lifeforms reflect past climates

Front 87

ice cores and temperature

Back 87

may provide records dating back several million years

Front 88

sea-level rise

Back 88

shoreline moves upwards and landwards

Front 89

effects of warming

Back 89

-sea level rise
-arctic sea ice loss
-increase in extreme weather events
-increased heat waves and droughts

Front 90

climate change mitigation

Back 90

-remove CO2
-reduce CO2 emissions
-adapt
-ignore or deny problem

Front 91

dust storms

Back 91

-loss of farmland
-forced migration

Front 92

fire triangle

Back 92

oxygen, heat, fuel

Front 93

1st phase of wildfire

Back 93

preignition

Front 94

preignition

Back 94

fuel is brought to both a temperature and water content that favors ignition

Front 95

pyrolysis

Back 95

-"heat divided"
-processes that chemically degrade the fuel

Front 96

2nd phase of a wildfire

Back 96

combustion

Front 97

combustion

Back 97

-begins with ignition
-starts a set of processes completely different that preignition

Front 98

three primary ways heat is transferred

Back 98

conduction, radiation, convection

Front 99

conduction

Back 99

transmission of heat through molecular contact

Front 100

radiation

Back 100

heat transfer through electromagnetic waves

Front 101

convection

Back 101

heat transfer by the movement of heated gases

Front 102

3rd stage of a wildfire

Back 102

extinction

Front 103

extinction

Back 103

the point at which combustion including smoldering ceases

Front 104

three factors that help explain wildfires

Back 104

fuel, topography, weather

Front 105

fuel

Back 105

differ in type, size, quantity arrangement and moisture content

Front 106

peat

Back 106

type of fuel that consists of an unconsolidated deposit of partially decayed wood, leaves, or moss

Front 107

topography

Back 107

-moisture content of fuel heavily influenced by location
-also influence air circulation
-slopes make movement of wildfires easier

Front 108

weather

Back 108

temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, and winds have a dominant influence on wildfires

Front 109

ground fires

Back 109

creep along slowly just under the ground surface and burn in duff

Front 110

duff

Back 110

decaying organic matter in the soil

Front 111

surface fires

Back 111

fires which move along the ground and vary in intensity

Front 112

crown fires

Back 112

fires in which flaming combustion is carried through the canopies of trees

Front 113

fire regime

Back 113

1. types of fuel found in plant community
2. typical fire behavior
3. overall fire history of the area

Front 114

prescribed burns

Back 114

human ignition of built up fuels in a forest to reduce the amount of fuels in a certain area and reduce the likelihood of a catastrophic event

Front 115

red flag warnings

Back 115

when extreme fire conditions are either occurring or will take place in the next 24 hours

Front 116

cyclone

Back 116

a low-pressure area with a closed circulation

Front 117

stream order

Back 117

number of tributaries a stream has

Front 118

storm surge

Back 118

sudden rise in sea level when a cyclone makes landfall

Front 119

bedrock streams

Back 119

fast-flowing, steep terrain, narrow valleys

Front 120

river discharge, how to calculate

Back 120

width and depth of stream, flow velocity

Front 121

preventing rock falls

Back 121

rock bolts and netting are used

Front 122

levee

Back 122

elevated area along the length of a stream bank

Front 123

what is released when water vapor condenses

Back 123

heat

Front 124

when watershed is urbanized, flood discharge......?

Back 124

increases

Front 125

air mass

Back 125

area of atmosphere with similar temperatures and humidity

Front 126

angle of repose

Back 126

increasing steepness past this point will increase likelihood of flow-type movements

Front 127

lower the air pressure

Back 127

the more intense the storm

Front 128

why do large streams take longer to flood

Back 128

thy have larger drainage basins that take more time to fill up

Front 129

misconception of extratropical storms

Back 129

they do produce storm surges

Front 130

flow

Back 130

mass of material moving in coherent pieces down a defined surface

Front 131

flood stage

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when the elevation of a stream's surface exceeds that of a stream bank

Front 132

vegetation mitigation of mass wasting

Back 132

-slowing rate of water infiltration
-holding soil in place

Front 133

fully saturated soil

Back 133

surface tension of the water in the pores reduces strength of this soil

Front 134

increased probability of mass wasting

Back 134

increased driving force, decreased resisting force

Front 135

karst topography is underlain by this type of bedrock

Back 135

limestone

Front 136

two types of sinkholes

Back 136

collapse and solutional

Front 137

what dissolved gas makes water acidic

Back 137

carbon dioxide

Front 138

what type of clay expands when saturated with water

Back 138

smecite

Front 139

soil formation begins with the weathering of what?

Back 139

bedrock

Front 140

water cycle

Back 140

transfer of water between oceans, atmosphere, surface water on land and groundwater

Front 141

can cause soil creep by expanding and contracting the water in soil

Back 141

freezing and thawing of soil

Front 142

jet streams

Back 142

narrow currents of fast moving winds between the troposphere and stratosphere, helps steer storms

Front 143

flash flooding

Back 143

caused by heavy precipitation and rapid runoff into a small drainage basin

Front 144

thrust faults

Back 144

type of fault most associated with convergent plate boundaries

Front 145

epicenter

Back 145

location at the surface of the earth directly above the point of rupture

Front 146

movement along faults....

Back 146

cause earthquakes

Front 147

the biggest earthquakes occur where

Back 147

at subduction zones

Front 148

mercalli scale

Back 148

effects of earthquakes that include, shaking of buildings and those felt and observed by people

Front 149

what causes a tsunami generated by an earthquake

Back 149

mega thrust quakes at subduction zones

Front 150

surface waves

Back 150

largest wave of an earthquake with greatest energy but do not travel through the earth only on the surface

Front 151

what happens to seismic waves as they move farther from the focus?

Back 151

they lose energy

Front 152

magnitude

Back 152

measures the amount of energy of the quake at the focus

Front 153

can earthquakes be predicted

Back 153

no

Front 154

seismic gap

Back 154

section of an active fault with few earthquakes

Front 155

most of the Earth's water is stored in which reservoir of the Earth's hydrological cycle?

Back 155

oceans

Front 156

two types of floods

Back 156

flash floods and downstream floods

Front 157

floodplain

Back 157

relative flat lowland that borders a river

Front 158

two types of rivers described in class

Back 158

alluvial rivers and bedrock rivers

Front 159

larger waves have more energy because

Back 159

wave energy is proportional to wave height squared

Front 160

ocean city, NJ spent 5 million on beach nourishment in 1982, how long did it last?

Back 160

2 and 1/2 months

Front 161

global conveyor or thermohaline cycle

Back 161

the global circulation and exchange of warm surface and cold deep water in the earth

Front 162

anthropogenic forcing

Back 162

increased greenhouse gases from human activities

Front 163

albedo

Back 163

amount of reflection a substance has

Front 164

Milankovitch Cylcles

Back 164

periodic changes in Earth's orbit and the tilt and direction of Earth's axis

Front 165

an active sun releasing more energy

Back 165

has more sunspots

Front 166

what is not a greenhouse gas

Back 166

argon

Front 167

in a warming global climate, sea level increases due to...

Back 167

-melting of continental ice sheets on land
-thermal expansion of sea water

Front 168

dust bowl

Back 168

due to a combination of extended drought and agricultural practices not suitable for the region

Front 169

positive feedback

Back 169

when glacial ice melts and bare ground is exposed