Gender

Front 1

Biological Explanations - Role of Genes & Hormones

Back 1

Sex - physical, biological characteristics

Gender - how we psychologically identify

Main Assumptions: Gender differences caused by physical causes

Role of genes & hormones have been cited as responsible for gender.

- 23rd pair determines biological sex of foetus (XY or XX), but also suggested to determine it's gender (i.e. psychology and behaviour)

- This is because SRY gene on the Y chromosome causes the development of foeti's gonads into testes, which then produce extra male hormones to begin masculinising the foetus. These male hormones (androgens) begin the development of male genitals and the masculinisation of the brain allowing for masculine behaviour and a male gender identity.

- Due to females 23rd pair being 'XX' and having no 'Y' chromosome and consequently no SRY gene, their gonads automatically develop into ovaries, and therefore is no excess androgen production, so the brain remains feminised.

- As such this suggests that perhaps in the case of abnormal chromosome patterns, a male without a Y chromosome and the SRY gene would consequently develop a feminine gender identity due to a lack of excess androgen development to masculinise their brain.

- Abnormal chromosome patterns therefore would be thought to affect normal gendered behaviour.

- For instance, males with Kleinfelter’s syndrome have an extra ‘X’ chromosome and display shy and passive behaviour, tending to behave in a more feminine way as apposed to typical masculine behaviour. This suggests that their genes have determined their behaviour. But males with an extra ‘Y’ (XYY) chromosome have been found to behave in a more normal manner, than overly masculinised and aggressive behaviour, as it would be assumed for males with and extra ‘Y’ chromosome.

- Differences in brain physiology between males & females have also been found.

- For instance, size of the sexually dimorphic nucleus (or SDN), which is locate din the Hypothalamus and i thought to be responsible for our sexual behaviour, has been found to be half the size in females brain than that in male brains.

- Size difference is supported by Gorski (1980) as he studied the SDN in post-mortems of male transsexuals and found the size of their sexually dimorphic nuclei was more similar to that of females (i.e. half the size of an average male SDN).

- This research could therefore be a potential explanation for Gender Identity Disorder (or Gender Dysphoria), as it suggests that the brains of transsexuals brains are physically feminised, as apposed to transsexuals choosing to display feminine behaviours.

- Influence of hormones also been cited as influential on gender. For example, in Gorski’s experiment with rats, he found that the female offspring of pregnant as overexposed to testosterone during gestation tended to display more typically masculine behaviour (e.g. mounting other female rats) compared to the other female rats that had no been overexposed.

- This evidence suggests that the over exposure to male androgens affected their behaviour, thus linking biology and gender behaviour. However, although this is scientific evidence, the us of animals may limit the generalisability for his evidence to humans, as it could not be assured that we would react in the same way.

Deady et al (2006) found a correlation between higher levels of testosterone in saliva of women with lower desire to have children. As maternity is typically a feminine characteristic, this would suggest that these females have more masculine characteristics due to the increased male hormone in their bodies. However, the nature of correlational studies is that evidence from them only shows a relationship between the effect of hormones on gender behaviour, and therefore no cause and effect of the two variables can be implied, as we cannot be certain that hormones are the only factor in determining the females gender behaviour.

Although much compelling evidence linking biological causes + gender, approach has been criticised as being reductionist. Reduces gender down to level of genes + hormones, making explanation very narrow & ignoring other possible factors influencing gender such as our environment.

- For example, Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) found that parents rewarded children for appropriate gender toy choice, thus reinforcing sex typed behaviours.

- However, in David Reimer case study - the effects of environmental factors failed to turn him from biologically male to psychologically female. Suggests to be due to his male genetics, as his brain has already been fully masculinised in gestation, meaning that the influence of nurture could not reverse this biological change. - Study supports the biological approach to gender as it implies that the role of nurture and our environment, no matter how powerful cannot reverse the biological foundations that our sex and gender are built from.

If, as the biological approach suggests, our genes and hormones regulate male and female behaviour, it may be considered very deterministic, as it does not allow the individual and free will. In addition, the approach implies a ‘normal’ pattern of behaviour for each sex, and reinforces gender stereotypes. This would mean that anyone who does not display sex appropriate behaviour may be seen as ‘abnormal’. This could lead to a negative psychological effect on those who don’t conform to these gender stereotypes. In addition, such perceptions of ‘normal’ gender behaviour could be an issue for females, in particular as they may be constricting on future aspirations, for instance, a female may not be considered for high powered jobs due to the gender stereotype of women being gentle and non-aggressive. However, there are many examples of gender variations, such as ‘ladettes’ and ‘house husbands’, which imply that gender is not in fact fixed, but flexible to some degree, and may be influenced by environmental factors.

However, it is unlikely that that the biological approach can be used exclusively to explain gender role behaviour. We only have to look back through history to see that gender roles have changed considerably over a relatively short period of time, as we see differences between cultures of gender role behaviours. This indicates that social and cultural factors also have a significant influence on gender. So although there is a wealth of biological evidence linking biology and gender differences, perhaps a more appropriate explanation for gender differences between males and females may be that we are biologically predisposed to certain gender behaviours, but our culture and environment can also have an influence in shaping and changing gender behaviour, as this dual approach would explain gender differences over time.

Front 2

Evolutionary Explanation of Gender

Back 2

Triver’s Parental Investment Theory (difference in reproductive challenges cause differences in investment of genders, women invest more)

Promiscuity (men more promiscuous as reproductive strategy - pair bonds argued as better strategy - women more choosy as limited reproductive opportunities)

Aggression (guarding behaviour to deter females from infidelity, ward off competitors to ensure paternity, women tend to verbally aggress, Daley & Wilson’s Detriot study)

EVALUATIONS

Front 3

Cross-cultural influences on Gender Roles

Back 3

2

Front 4

Biosocial Approach to Gender

Back 4

3

Front 5

Gender Dysphoria/ Gender Identity Disorder

Back 5

4

Front 6

Kohlberg's Cognitive Development of Gender Theory

Back 6

5

Front 7

Gender Schema Theory

Back 7

6

Front 8

Psychological Explanations of Gender

Back 8

Main assumptions (gender explained how children think & develop understanding of gender)

Kohlberg’s theory of Gender Development (3 stages, supportive evidence - Thompson, Slaby & Frey interviews with children, and their split screen visual preference test)

Matin & Halverson’s Gender Schema Theory (main assumptions, in-group & out-group, Campbell’s visual preference supportive evidence)

Comparisons of theories & Evaluations

Front 9

Social Influences on Gender (Parents, Peers, Media & Schools)

Back 9

SLT (actively seek out same sex role models, cognitive factors in deciding to copy behaviours, vicarious reinforcement)

Operant Conditioning (parents positively reinforcement sex typed behaviours & opposite gender behaviour punished

Peers (Langlois & Downs - peers ridicule for playing with opposite sex toys, peers act as gender regulators)

Schools (college subjects gender split, teacher praise, Serbin -teachers tended to show gender stereotyping in class)

Media (TV influencing stereotyped attitudes, Manstead & Mcullogh content analysis of UK TV ads showed considerable, implication of duty to avoid gender stereotyping)

EVALUATIONS