Final Exam Psych Vocab

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Social psychology

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the branch of psychology concerned with how others influence the way a person thinks, feels, and acts

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Social cognition

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the mental processes by which people make sense of themselves, others, and their social situations

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Self

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the mental representation of a personal experience, including thought processes, a physical body, and a conscious experience of individuality

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Self-awareness

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a state in which the sense of self is the object of attention

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Self-concept

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the full store of knowledge that people have about themselves

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Self-schema

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the cognitive aspect of the self-concept, consisting of an integrated set of memories, beliefs, and generalizations about the self

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Interdependent self-construals

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when self-concepts are determined largely by social roles and personal relationships

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Independent self-construals

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a view of the self as separate from others, emphasizing self-reliance and the pursuit of personal success

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Self-esteem

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the evaluative aspect of the self-concept

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Sociometer

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an internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection

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Positive illusions

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overly favorable and unrealistic beliefs about one’s skills, abilities, and competencies

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Social comparison

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occurs when people evaluate their own actions, abilities, and beliefs by contrasting them with other people

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Self-serving bias

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the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

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Attitude

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the evaluation of objects or ideas to indicate like or dislike toward them

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Implicit attitudes

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attitudes that influence our feelings and behavior at an unconscious level

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Cognitive dissonance

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when there is a contradiction between two attitudes or between some attitude and behavior

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Persuasion

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the active and conscious effort to change attitudes through the transmission of a message

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Elaboration likelihood model

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a theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude change

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Personal attributions

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explanations that refer to internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, and effort

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Situational attributions

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explanations that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or the actions of other people

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Correspondence bias

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the tendency to expect people’s behavior to agree with their dispositions

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Stereotypes

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cognitive schemas that allow for easy and efficient organization of information about people based on their membership in certain groups

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Prejudice

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the affective or attitudinal responses associated with stereotypes

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Discrimination

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the inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people based solely on their group membership

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Outgroup homogeneity effect

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the tendency for people to view outgroup members as more similar to each other than ingroup members

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Ingroup favoritism

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the tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup

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Stigma

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a very strong devaluation that extends to a person’s entire character

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Self-fulfilling prophecy

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people come to behave in ways that confirm their own or other’s expectations

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Stereotype threat

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a phenomenon in which individuals who feel that their behavior may confirm or verify a negative stereotype perform poorly on a given test

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Contact hypothesis

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the idea that increasing contact with familiarity with outgroup members will reduce negative attitudes towards them

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Superordinate goals

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goals that require people to cooperate in order to succeed

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Social influence

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the ways in which other people shape our actions

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Affiliation

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the tendency to be in social contact with others

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Need to belong theory

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the need for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental motive that has evolved for adaptive purposes

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Social dilemma

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when there is a motivational conflict both to cooperate and to be selfish

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Nonverbal behavior

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communication based on gestures, expression, vocal cues, and body movements rather than words

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Deception

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the act of making others believe something that is not true

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Personal space

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the distance that people routinely maintain from others

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Impression management

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the tendency for people to strategically alter how they present themselves in order to achieve interpersonal goals

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Self-monitoring

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a personality characteristic that describes the extent to which people monitor and alter their behavior according to situational cues

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Social facilitation

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when the mere presence of others enhances performance

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Social loafing

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the tendency for people to work less hard in a group that when working alone

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Deindividuation

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a phenomenon of low self-awareness in which people lose their individuality and fail to attend to personal standards

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Group polarization

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a process where group members conform to the initial attitudes of other members who already agree

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Social norms

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expected standards of conduct that influence behavior

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Conformity

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the altering of one’s opinions or behavior to match those of others

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Compliance

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the tendency to agree to do things requested by others

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Obedience

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the willingness to follow an order given by an authority

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Aggression

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any behavior or action that involves the intention to harm someone else

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Frustration-aggression hypothesis

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the extent to which people feel frustrated predicts the likelihood that they will act aggressively

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Prosocial

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tending to benefit others

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Altruism

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to provide help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so

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Kin selection

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the tendency to be altruistic toward those who share a genetic bond

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Reciprocal helping

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the tendency to help another because the recipient may return the favor

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Bystander intervention effect

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the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need

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Proximity

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the frequency with which individuals come into contact

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What is beautiful is good stereotype

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to attribute a variety of positive characteristics to people simply based on their physical attractiveness

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Sexual strategies theory

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evolutionary theory that suggests men and women look for different qualities in relationship partners due to the gender-specific adaptive problems

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Passionate love

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a state of intense longing and sexual desire

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Companionate love

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a strong commitment based on friendship, trust, respect, and intimacy that strengthens over time

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Triangular theory of love

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proposes that love is made up of different combinations of passion, intimacy, and commitment

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Personality

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characteristics, emotional responses, thoughts, and behaviors that are relatively stable over time and across circumstances

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Personality trait

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a characteristic; a dispositional tendency to act in a certain way over time and across circumstances

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Psychodynamic theory

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Freudian theory that unconscious forces, such as wishes and motives, influence behavior

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Psychosexual stage

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according to Freud, the developmental states that correspond to the pursuit of satisfaction of libidinal urges

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Id

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in psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle

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Superego

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the psychodynamic theory, the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct

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Ego

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in psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego

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Defense mechanisms

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unconscious mental strategies used to protect the mind from conflict and distress

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Humanistic approaches

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approaches to studying personality that emphasize personal experience and belief systems, and propose that people seek personal growth to fulfill their human potential

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Personality types

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discrete categories based on global personality characteristics

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Trait approach

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an approach to studying personality that focuses on the extent to which individuals differ in personality dispositions

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Five factor theory

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the idea that personality can be described using five traits: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

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Idiographic approach

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person-centered approaches to studying personality that focus on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons

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Nomothetic approaches

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approaches to studying personality that focus on characteristics that are common to all people, although there is individual variation

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Projective measures

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personality tests that examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli

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Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)

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a projective measure of personality where a person is shown an ambiguous picture and asked to tell a story about the picture

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Objective measures

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relatively unbiased assessments of personality usually administered through self-report questionnaires or through observer ratings

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Situationism

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the theory that proposes that behavior is determined to a much greater extent by situations than by personality traits

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Interactionists

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theorists who believe that behavior is jointly determined by underlying dispositions and situations

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Temperaments

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biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways

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Sensation seekers

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individuals who routinely seek out novel, complex situations and are willing to take physical and social risks in order to achieve thrills

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Behavioral approach system (BAS)

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the brain system involved in the pursuit of incentives or rewards

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Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

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the brain system that is sensitive to punishment and therefore inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain

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Quantum change

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a transformation of personality that is sudden, profound, enduring, and affects a wide range of behaviors

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Psychopathology

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a disorder of the mind

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

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a handbook of clinical disorders used for diagnosing psychopathology

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Multiaxial system

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the system used in the DSM that provides assessment along five axes describing important mental health factors

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Family systems model

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considers symptoms within an individual as indicating problems within the family

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Sociocultural model

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views psychopathology as the result of the interaction between individuals and their cultures

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Cognitive-behavioral approach

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views psychopathology as the result of learned, maladaptive cognitions

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Diathesis-stress model

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proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event

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Anxiety disorders

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characterized by the experience of excessive anxiety in the absence of true danger

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Phobias

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irrational fears of specific objects or situations

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Generalized anxiety disorder

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diffuse state of constant anxiety not associated with any specific object or event

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Panic disorder

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an anxiety disorder characterized by sudden overwhelming attacks of terror

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Agoraphobia

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an anxiety disorder marked by fear of being in situations in which escape may be difficult or impossible

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Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

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a anxiety disorder characterized by frequent intrusive thoughts and compulsive actions

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Major depression

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a disorder characterized by severe negative moods and a lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities

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Dysthymia

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a form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depression

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Bipolar disorder

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a mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania

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Cyclothymia

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a less extreme form of bipolar disorder

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Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

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periods of depression that are linked to the times of year with minimal sunlight

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Learned helplessness model

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a cognitive model of depression in which people feel unable to control events around them

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Schizophrenia

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a mental disorder characterized by alterations in perceptions, emotions, thoughts, or consciousness

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Positive symptoms

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symptoms of schizophrenia such as delusions and hallucinations that are excesses in behavior

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Negative symptoms

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symptoms of schizophrenia marked by deficits in functioning such as apathy, lack of emotion, and slowed speech and movement

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Delusions

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false personal beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality

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Hallucinations

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false sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source

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Loosening of associations

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a speech pattern among schizophrenic patients in which their thoughts are disorganized or meaningless

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Personality disorder

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a class of mental disorders marked by inflexible and maladaptive ways of interacting with the world

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Borderline personality disorder

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a personality disorder characterized by identity, affective, and impulse disturbances

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Antisocial personality disorder

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a personality disorder marked by a lack of empathy and remorse

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Autism

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a developmental disorder involving deficits in social interaction, impaired communication, and restricted interests

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Echolalia

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the repetition of words or phrases that is characteristic of children with autism

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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHA)

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a disorder characterized by restless, inattentive, and impulsive behaviors

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Psychotherapy

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the generic name given to formal psychological treatment

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Biological therapies

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treatment based on the medical approach to illness and disease

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Insight

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a goal of some types of therapy; a patient’s understanding of his or her own psychological processes

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Client-centered therapy

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an empathic approach to therapy that encourages personal growth through greater self-understanding

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Behavior modification

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principles of operant conditioning are used to reinforce desired behaviors and ignore or punish unwanted behaviors

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Social-skills training

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treatment designed to teach and reinforce appropriate interpersonal behavior

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Exposure

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a behavioral therapy technique that involves repeated exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus or situation

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Systematic desensitization

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an exposure technique that pairs the anxiety-producing stimulus with relaxation techniques

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Cognitive therapy

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treatment based on the idea that distorted thoughts produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions

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Cognitive restructurin

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a therapy that strives to help patients recognize maladaptive thought patterns and replace them with ways of viewing the world that are more in tune with reality

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Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

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incorporates techniques from behavioral therapy and cognitive therapy to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors

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Expressed emotion

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a pattern of interactions that includes emotional overinvolvement, critical comments, and hostility directed toward a patient by family members

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Psychotropic medication

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drugs that affect mental processes

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Anti-anxiety drugs

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a class of psychotropic medications used for the treatment of anxiety

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Antidepressants

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a class of psychotropic medications used to treat depression

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MAO inhibitors

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a category of antidepressant drugs that inhibit the action of monoamine oxidase

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Tricyclic antidepressants

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a category of antidepressant medications that inhibit the reuptake of a number of different neurotransmitters

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Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

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a category of antidepressant medications that prolong the effects of serotonin in the synapse

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Antipsychotics

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a class of drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis

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Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

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a procedure used to treat depression that involves administering a strong electrical current to the patient’s brain

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation

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a procedure that transmits pulses of high-intensity magnetism to the brain

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Lithium

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a psychotropic medication used to treat bipolar disorder

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Tardive dyskinesia

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a side effect of some antipsychotic medications that produces involuntary movements of the lips, tongue, face, legs, or other parts of the body

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Clozapine

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an antipsychotic medication that acts on multiple neurotransmitter receptors and is beneficial in treating both the negative and positive symptoms of schizophrenia

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Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)

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a treatment for borderline personality disorder that combines elements of behavioral, cognitive, and psychodynamic approaches

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Methylphenidate

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a central nervous system stimulant medication used to treat ADHA

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Motivation

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factors that energize, direct, or sustain behavior

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Goal

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a desired outcome associated with some specific object of desire or some future behavioral intention

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Homeostasis

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the tendency for bodily functions to maintain equilibrium

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Negative feedback model

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the body’s response to deviations from equilibrium

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Set-point

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a hypothetical state that indicates homeostasis

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Instincts

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unlearned, automatic actions that are triggered by specific cues

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Needs

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states of biological or social deficiencies within the body

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Self-actualization

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a state that is achieved when one’s personal dreams and aspirations have been attained

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Need hierarchy

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Maslow’s arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs are lowest, and personal growth needs are highest in terms of priority

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Drives

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psychological states that motivate an organism to satisfy its needs

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Arousal

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term to describe physiological activation, such as increased brain activity, autonomic responses, sweating, or muscle tension

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Expectancies

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mental representations of potential future outcomes

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Incentives

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external stimuli that motivate behaviors (as opposed to internal drives)

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Extrinsic motivation

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motivation to perform activity because of the external goals toward which that activity is directed

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Intrinsic motivation

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motivation to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for an apparent biological goal or purpose

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Creativity

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the capacity to generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems, communicating with others, or entertaining ourselves and others

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Yerkes-Dodson law

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a psychological principle that dictates that behavioral efficiency increases with arousal up to an optimum point, after which it decreases with increasing arousal

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Self-regulation

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the process by which people initiate, adjust, or stop actions in order to promote the attainment of personal goals or plans

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Self-efficacy

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the expectancy that one’s efforts will lead to success

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Achievement motive

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the desire to do well relative to standards of excellence

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TOTE model

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a model of self-regulation in which people evaluate progress towards achieving goals

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Deindividuation

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a mental state of low self-awareness in which people act in an uninhibited manner

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Delay of gratification

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when people transcend immediate temptations to successfully achieve long term goals

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Somatic marker theory

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self-regulatory actions and decisions are affected by the bodily reactions that arise from their contemplation

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Body mass index (BMI)

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a ratio of body weight to height used to measure obesity

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Anorexia nervosa

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an eating disorder characterized by an excessive fear of becoming fat and a refusal to eat

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Bulimia nervosa

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an eating disorder characterized by dieting, binge eating, and purging