Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
248 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Anabolism
|
energy-requiring building phase of metabolism in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex substances.
|
|
|
Carotene
|
Pigment that accumulates in the stratum corneum epidermal layer and in fatty tissue of the hypodermis. Yellow to orange colored.
|
|
|
Cartilage
|
White, semipaque connective tissue.
|
|
|
Caatabolism
|
Process of breaking down complex materials (foods) to form simpler substances and release energy
|
|
|
Holocrine Gland
|
Glands that accumulate their secretions in the cells; secretions are discharged only upon rupture and death of the cell.
|
|
|
Merocrine gland
|
Glands that produce secretions intermittently; secrets do not accumulate in the glands.
|
|
|
Enzyme
|
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction.
|
|
|
Hemoglobin
|
Oxygen-Transporting protein of erythrocytes, gives skin a pinkish color.
|
|
|
keratin
|
Hard protein material found in epidermis, hair and nails
|
|
|
Parietal
|
Wall of a cavity
|
|
|
Collagen fibers
|
Tufts of _____ that extend from the fibrous layer into the bone matrix secures the periosteum to the underlying bone
|
|
|
Calcitonin
|
Homrone that inhibts osteoclast (slows reasorption to encurage clacium deposit into bone matrix
|
|
|
Parathyroid Hormone
|
Hormone that increases both number and activity of osteoclast (accelerates release of Calcium ions from bone
|
|
|
Meniscus
|
Example of Synovial Joint
|
|
|
Sutures in the skull
|
Example of Fibrous Joint
|
|
|
Isometric Contraction
|
A contration in which the tension develops, but resistence is too great and contraction is minimal
|
|
|
Isotonic Contractions
|
Muscle contraction where the tension is sufficient to move the load (Muscle contracts and produces movement)
|
|
|
Actin
|
Protein found in Thin Myofilament
|
|
|
Myosin
|
Protein found in Thick Myofilament
|
|
|
Sarcomeres
|
Units of myofibrils.
|
|
|
Motor units
|
A whole muscle is usually a blend of different types of _____.
|
|
|
Muscle Fatigue
|
The decline in ability of a muscle to generate force.
|
|
|
Muscle Cramps
|
A strong, painful contraction or tightening of a muscle that comes on suddenly and lasts from a few seconds to several minutes.
|
|
|
Lactic acid build up
|
One cause of Muscle fatigue can be build up of _____ due to poor cirulation. (feels like cramp, but muscle is not contracted)
|
|
|
Atrophy
|
Degeneration or loss of muscle
|
|
|
Hypertrophy
|
An increase in size of the muscle fibers, due to increase use. (more myofibrils are produced, increasing cell size, not #)
|
|
|
Myoglobin
|
A red, pigmented molecule found in muscle fibers. Stores and releases Oxygen when needed.
|
|
|
Red Muscle Fibers
|
Muscle high in myoglobin (thus O2 storage)
|
|
|
White Muscle Fibers
|
Muscle low in Myoglobin (thus low O2 storage)
|
|
|
Periosteum
|
Double-layered membrane covering the external surface of the entire bone except the joint surfaces
|
|
|
Wave summation
|
An increase in muscle contraction strength based on how rapidly a muscle is stimulated. _____ occurs because muscles that are rapidly stimulated are not able to relax between repeated stimulation.
|
|
|
Treppe
|
The gradual increase in muscular contraction following rapidly repeated stimulation. (like stairs)
|
|
|
Glycolytic
|
The use of anaerobic glycolysis, thus not needing oxygen to create ATP. Lactic Acid builds up, causing muscle fatigue to be quick. Happens in White Muscle Fibers
|
|
|
Oxidative
|
The use of aerobic pathways, thus requires oxygen to create ATP. Causes muscle fatigue to happen slower. Happens in the Red muscle fibers
|
|
|
Fiber
|
A single motor unit is all on type of ____.
|
|
|
Integumentary
|
protects against mechanical injury, infection, excessive heat/cold, and drying out
|
|
|
Skeletal
|
supports body, protects internal organs, provides framework for muscles to produce movement
|
|
|
Muscular
|
generates heat. Creates movement. Maintains posture
|
|
|
Immune
|
Defends against infections and cancer
|
|
|
Lymphatic
|
Returns excess body fluid to circulatory system and functions as a part of the immune system
|
|
|
Endocrine
|
Secretes hormones that regulate body activities
|
|
|
Circulatory
|
Delivers nutrients and oxygen to cells and carries carbon dioxide to lungs, and metabolic wastes to excretory organs (Kidneys)
|
|
|
Respiratory
|
Exchanges gases with the environment, supplies oxygen, disposes of carbon dioxide
|
|
|
Urinary (excretory)
|
Removes nitrogen containing waste from blood, and regulates chemical makeup, pH, and water balance of blood
|
|
|
Digestive
|
Ingests and breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates undigested material
|
|
|
Reproductive
|
Produces gametes and sex hormones
|
|
|
Nervous
|
Coordinates body activities by detecting stimuli
|
|
|
Metabolism
|
The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.
|
|
|
Homeostasis
|
the tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes.
|
|
|
Ionic Bond
|
A chemical bond formed between two ions with opposite charges. Form when one atom gives up one or more electrons to another atom. These bonds can form between a pair of atoms or between molecules and are the type of bond found in salts.
|
|
|
Covalent Bond
|
a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
|
|
|
Nonpolar covalent bonds
|
a type of chemical bond where two atoms share a pair of electrons with each other.
|
|
|
Polar covalent bond
|
a type of chemical bond where a pair of electrons is unequally shared between two atoms.
|
|
|
Hydrophobic
|
tending to repel or fail to mix with water.
|
|
|
Hydrophilic
|
having a tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water.
|
|
|
Ion
|
an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
|
|
|
Anion
|
a negatively charged ion, i.e., one that would be attracted to the anode in electrolysis.
|
|
|
Cation
|
a positively charged ion, i.e., one that would be attracted to the cathode in electrolysis.
|
|
|
Proton
|
Particle found in a nucleus with a positive charge. Number of these gives atomic number .
|
|
|
Electron
|
the smallest of the particles that make up an atom, and they carry a negative charge.
|
|
|
Neutron
|
a particle found in the nucleus of atoms that have no (zero) charge.
|
|
|
Phagocytosis
|
the ingestion of bacteria or other material by phagocytes and amoeboid protozoans.
|
|
|
Diffusion
|
the net passive movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration.
|
|
|
Osmosis
|
a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing the concentrations on each side of the membrane.
|
|
|
Nucleus
|
a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth and reproduction.
|
|
|
Nucleolus
|
a small dense spherical structure in the nucleus of a cell during interphase.
|
|
|
Endoplasmic Reticulum
|
a network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the nuclear membrane. It usually has ribosomes attached and is involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
|
|
|
Ribosome
|
A sphere-shaped structure within the cytoplasm of a cell that is composed of RNA and protein and is the site of protein synthesis.
|
|
|
Anatomy
|
The study of the structures of living things
|
|
|
Physiology
|
The study of how the structures of living things function
|
|
|
Apocrine
|
A coiled, tubular gland whose secretory cells accumulate their products on their apical surfaces that are then pinched off to become the secretion, as in the mammary glands.
|
|
|
Mitochondria
|
an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. It has a double membrane, the inner layer being folded inward to form layers.
|
|
|
Golgi Apparatus
|
a complex of vesicles and folded membranes within the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells, involved in secretion and intracellular transport.
|
|
|
Lysosome
|
an organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane.
|
|
|
Vesicle
|
A small structure within a cell, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Form naturally during the processes of secretion (exocytosis), uptake (endocytosis) and transport of materials within the cytoplasm.
|
|
|
Protein
|
A molecule composed of polymers of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.
|
|
|
DNA
|
A type of macromolecule known as a nucleic acid. It is shaped like a twisted double helix and is composed of long strands of alternating sugars and phosphate groups, along with nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine).
|
|
|
Organic
|
any substance containing carbon-based compounds, especially produced by or derived from living organisms
|
|
|
Inorganic
|
something unrelated to organic matter or organic life, not animal or vegetable, or a chemical compound that does not contain carbon.
|
|
|
Vitamin
|
essential for normal growth and metabolic processes and is required in trace amounts. Supplement.
|
|
|
Mineral
|
naturally occurring nutrients, which are inorganic elements and compounds such as iron, potassium, and calcium.
|
|
|
Mitosis
|
The process in cell division by which the nucleus divides, typically consisting of four stages
|
|
|
Four Stages of Mitosis
|
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
|
|
|
Four basic types of tissue
|
Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue
|
|
|
Epithelial tissues
|
Line the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs throughout the body.
|
|
|
Connective Tissues
|
a tissue that connects, supports, binds, or separates other tissues or organs, typically having relatively few cells embedded in an amorphous matrix, often with collagen or other fibers, and including cartilaginous, fatty, and elastic tissues.
|
|
|
Muscular Tissues
|
a tissue composed of cells or fibers, the contraction of which produces movement in the body.
|
|
|
Nervous Tissue
|
the main tissue component of the two parts of the nervous system
|
|
|
Endocrine
|
Pertaining to hormones and the glands that make and secrete them into the bloodstream through which they travel to affect distant organs
|
|
|
Exocrine
|
A gland that secretes a substance out through a duct.
|
|
|
ATP
|
the energy currency of life. ATP is a high-energy molecule found in every cell. Its job is to store and supply the cell with needed energy.
|
|
|
Sebaceous glands
|
Exocrine glands in the skin that secrete an oily or waxy matter to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals.
|
|
|
Sudoriferous glands
|
Small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat.
|
|
|
Ceruminous glands
|
Specialized sudoriferous glands (sweat glands) located subcutaneously in the external auditory canal. Simple, coiled, tubular glands made up of an inner secretory layer of cells and an outer myoepithelial layer of cells. They are classed as apocrine glands.
|
|
|
Melanin
|
The pigment that gives human skin, hair, and eyes their color. Dark-skinned people have more in their skin than light-skinned people have.
|
|
|
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
|
A large family of RNA molecules that convey genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where they specify the amino acid sequence of the protein products of gene expression.
|
|
|
Ribosomal (rRNA)
|
The RNA component of the ribosome, and is essential for protein synthesis in all living organisms.
|
|
|
tRNA
|
RNA that function at specific sites in the ribosome during translation, which is a process that synthesizes a protein from an mRNA molecule.
|
|
|
Distal
|
Characterized by being far from the point of anatomical reference.
|
|
|
Proximal
|
Characterized by being close or near to the point of anatomical reference.
|
|
|
Adipose
|
body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue
|
|
|
Visceral
|
the internal organs of the body, specifically those within the chest or abdomen.
|
|
|
Inflammation
|
The reaction of a part of the body to injury or infection, characterized by swelling, heat, redness, and pain.
|
|
|
Synovial Joint
|
The most common and movable type of joint which is characterized by the presence of a layer of fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage that lines the opposing bony surfaces.
|
|
|
Epiphyseal Plate
|
a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone.
|
|
|
Epiphyseal Line
|
the part of the bone that replaces the epiphyseal growth plate in long bones once a person has reached their full adult height.
|
|
|
Ligament
|
the fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones
|
|
|
Tendon
|
a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension.
|
|
|
Bursa
|
fluid-filled sacs located around a joint that cushion bones when muscles, tendons, or skin rub against the bone.
|
|
|
Sensory input
|
monitors changes in the body’s internal and external environment.
|
|
|
Integration
|
Processing and interpreting the sensory input.
|
|
|
Motor output
|
Responding to interpretation by activating muscles or glands.
|
|
|
Central Nervous System (CNS)
|
Brain and Spinal Cord processing, interpreting, and responding center.
|
|
|
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
|
Remainder of nervous system consisting of communication links which connect CNS with muscles, glands, sensors, etc.
|
|
|
Afferent (Sensory) System
|
The input system consisting of nerves which convey information from sensory receptors towards the CNS.
|
|
|
Efferent (Motor) System
|
The output system, transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands)
|
|
|
Somatic Nervous System
|
Conveys impulses to skeletal muscle
|
|
|
Autonomic Nervous System
|
Motor nerve fibers which convey information to viscera
|
|
|
Neurology
|
Study of nervous System
|
|
|
Sympathetic Division
|
Increases an organ’s activity in response to some stress.
|
|
|
Parasympathetic Division
|
Inhibits an organs activity or return it to normal (Normal activity = conserve energy)
|
|
|
Neurons
|
Nerve cells which are specialized to conduct impulses consists of:
|
|
|
Perikaryons
|
location of nucleaus and most cell organelles.
|
|
|
Axons
|
Long cellular extension which conducts impulses Away from cell body (usually only one).
|
|
|
Dendrite
|
shorter cellular extensions which are highly branched and conduct impulses towards the cell body.
|
|
|
Neuroglial
|
supportive or protective cells, do not carry impulses – they insulate, nourish, protect, etc. the neurons.
|
|
|
Astrocytes
|
Star shaped cells which nourish neurons by connecting the, with blood vessels.
|
|
|
Microglial
|
protect nerve cells from infection by phagocytizing microorganisms and cellular debris.
|
|
|
Ependymal cells
|
form a lining of the cavities (ventricles) within the brain and spinal cord. They secrete cerebrospinal fluid and keep it moving with beating cilia.
|
|
|
Oligodendrocytes
|
cell which wrap around cental nervous system neurons forming an insulating sheath.
|
|
|
Schwann Cells
|
insulate axons/dendrites in the peripheral nervous system by wrapping around them creating a many layered myelin sheath of the Schwann cells membrane. Cells which have this insulating wrapping are said to be myelinated. It takes many Schwann cells are called Nodes of Ranvier.
|
|
|
Sensory (or afferent) neurons
|
conduct impulse from receptors (sensors) to CNS
|
|
|
Association neurons
|
conduct impulses between sensory and motor neurons.
|
|
|
Motor (or efferent) neuron
|
Conduct impulses from CNS to effectors (muscle or glands)
|
|
|
Multipolar neurons
|
have one axon and many dendrites
|
|
|
Bipolar neurons
|
have one axon and one dendrite.
|
|
|
Unipolar neurons
|
Have one extension which branches into an axon and a dendrite.
|
|
|
Nerve
|
cord like grouping of parallel nerve cells enclosed by connective tissue wrappings.
|
|
|
Endoneurium
|
encloses individual cells (neurons)
|
|
|
Perineurium
|
encloses bundles of neurons (bundles = fascicles)
|
|
|
Epineurium
|
surrounds bundles of fascicles
|
|
|
Reflex
|
a rapid, predictable, motor response to a stimulus… they are not learned, not premediated and considered involuntary or “built up”.
|
|
|
Reflex arc
|
the shortest neural pathway between receptor and effector.
|
|
|
Receptor
|
receives stimulus
|
|
|
Sensory neuron
|
transmits afferent impulse to CNS
|
|
|
Integration center
|
Inside CNS. The processing center, there might be association neurons involved depending on whether it is a polysynaptic reflex or a monosynaptic reflex.
|
|
|
Motor neuron
|
conducts efferent impulse to effector
|
|
|
Effector
|
body part being stimulated (muscle, gland, or organ)
|
|
|
Monosynaptic reflex
|
has only 1 synapse, therefore there are no association neurons, thus no integration or “control”. It is a truly involuntary or automatic response.
|
|
|
Polysynaptic Reflex
|
does involve integration and therefore he potential of over-riding the automatic motor response. (an inhibitory neural impulse can stop the “reflexive” motor response.)
|
|
|
Somatic N.S.
|
the voluntary system in which the effectors are all skeletal muscles, all impulses are excitatory, and there is only 1 efferent neuron running from the CNS to each effector (motor unit)
|
|
|
Autonomic NS
|
the involuntary or visceral division. It controls smooth ad cardiac muscle, and glands… so it regulates the activities of the organs (with the goal of maintaining homeostasis [blood pressure, digestion, etc.])
|
|
|
Sympathetic division
|
Increase activity levels… in response to stresses, so it activates various organs and is often referred to as the “fight or flight” system.
|
|
|
Parasympathetic Division
|
The “rest and repose” system. Performs maintenance activities, conserves energy. It decreases activity or returns it to normal
|
|
|
Medulla Oblongata
|
the continuation of the spinal cord within the skull, forming the lowest part of the brainstem and containing control centers for the heart and lungs.
|
|
|
Cardiovascular center
|
Adjusts he force/rate of heartbeat and vascular dilation and constriction (therefore blood pressure).
|
|
|
Respiratory center
|
Rate and depth of breathing.
|
|
|
Other reflex centers
|
Coordinate swallowing, sneezing, vomiting, coughing, etc.
|
|
|
Pons
|
Chiefly composed of conduction tracts between higher brain centers (i.e. cerebrum/cerebellum) and spinal cord. Also contains nuclei (reflex center) for many facial nerves.
|
|
|
Reticular formation
|
A system of neurons running throughout the brainstem and radiating through to the cerebral cortex. All sensory tracts synapse with these neurons which act as a sensory fitter (they filer out repetitive stimuli), so they choose whether to ignore stimuli or relay them to cerebrum). Helps regulate alertness vs. drowsiness.
|
|
|
Cerebral peduncle
|
contain somatic (motor) tracts from cerebrum to cerebellum… and then cerebellum to spinal cord. Also routes sensory input.
|
|
|
Corpora Quadrigemina
|
2 superior colliculi controlling reflex head movements in response to visual stimuli and 2 inferior colliculi… head reflexes to auditory stimuli.
|
|
|
Thamulus
|
Interprets sensory input somewhat and relays to cerebrum for interpretation.
|
|
|
Epithalamus
|
Produces most of the cerebrospinal fluid (~moods?) and includes pineal body which produces a hormone – Melatonin – which controls our sleep/awake cycle and the onset of puberty and is a “biological clock” controlling menstral and probably all other cycles e.g. aging, seasonal…)
|
|
|
Mammilary body
|
olfactory relay and reflex control.
|
|
|
Infundibulum
|
tubular stalk connecting to pituitary gland. The hypothalamus controls the release of some pituitary hormones and produces two of them.
|
|
|
Chief autonomic control center
|
regulating hunger, thirst, temperature, gland secretion. Regulates emotional responses especially pleasure, fear, rage and sex drive.
|
|
|
Cerebellum
|
functions to coordinate and monitor motor performance (makes sure muscles are doing what cerebrum has ordered). Processes “equilibrium data.”
|
|
|
Cerebrum
|
responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural functions and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the body.
|
|
|
Corpus Callosum
|
transverse fibers that interconnect the 2 hemispheres of the Cerebrum.
|
|
|
Sensory receptors
|
a sensory nerve ending that responds to a stimulus in the internal or external environment of an organism.
|
|
|
Generator potential
|
caused by depolarization of the membrane surrounding this part of the cell, brought about by an exchange of ions in response to a stimulus.
|
|
|
Adaptation
|
Occurs in most sensory receptors when they are subjected to unchanging stimulus for an extended time. The receptors become less responsive, less sensitive and my stop sending impulses, until the stimulus changes.
|
|
|
Extroceptors
|
Located near body surface provide info about external environment.
|
|
|
Interoceptors (visceroceptors)
|
Monitor internal conditions (and located there).
|
|
|
Proprioceptors
|
Monitor and are found in skeletal muscle, tendons, ligaments, joints.
|
|
|
Mechanoreceptors
|
Transduce when they are deformed by touch, vibration, stretching, etc.
|
|
|
Thermoreceptors
|
Temperature change
|
|
|
Photoreceptors
|
Respond to light energy
|
|
|
Chemoreceptors
|
Respond to presence of chemicals
|
|
|
Nocioceptors
|
pain receptors (although-over stimulation of any receptor is perceived as pain)
|
|
|
Olfactory hairs
|
The end of each receptor cell has cilia-like extensions called olfactory hairs.
|
|
|
Ophthalmologist
|
a physician (MD) specializing in eye disorders, diagnosis and treatment.
|
|
|
Optometrist
|
A licensed specialist (not a doctor) specialized to examine eyes and prescribe corrective lenses.
|
|
|
Optician
|
a technician who fits, dispenses and makes corrective lenss.
|
|
|
Eyebrows/Eyelashes
|
shade/protect eyes
|
|
|
Eye lids
|
Shade and protect eye and serve to spread eye lubricants (blinking)
|
|
|
Conjunctiva
|
A thin transparent mucous membrane which lines the inside of the eyelids and covers the cornea & sclera of the eye, (the conjunctiva is highly vascular, when the conjunctiva’s blood vessels are dilated = bloodshot eyes.)
|
|
|
Lacrimal apparatus
|
group of structures which manufacture secrete and drain tears. Tears not only lubricate, and clean but also contain lysozyme which is an anti-bacterial enzyme.
|
|
|
Fibrous Tunic
|
Avascular connective tissue
|
|
|
Sclera
|
The “fascia-like” tough outer covering, maintains shape and protects eye. (posterior portion)
|
|
|
Cornea
|
Transparent to let light through. (anterior)
|
|
|
Choroid
|
Brown-pigmented layer, it serves to absorb light after it passes through the retina-preventing it from scattering and confusing vision. It also provides nutrients to retina/sclera.
|
|
|
Ciliary Body
|
(anterior only) is mostly smooth muscle. It holds and changes the shape of the lens (focuses it)
|
|
|
Iris
|
The smooth muscle valve which controls the amount of light entering the eye by opening/constricting the pupil.
|
|
|
Sensory Tunic
|
The retina
|
|
|
Photoreceptors
|
Rods and cones.
|
|
|
Rods
|
More numerous and more sensitive to light but they only detect differences in light intensity not wavelength (meaning they detect black and white, not color)
|
|
|
Cones
|
Specialized for bright light
|
|
|
Wave length
|
Color
|
|
|
Fovea centralis
|
a region in the posterior of the eye
|
|
|
Anterior Cavity
|
The space anterior to the lens. It is filled with aqueous humor (watery fluid) which serves to nourish the cornea and to maintain eye shape (by pressure)
|
|
|
Glaucoma
|
Excess pressure builds up
|
|
|
Voltage
|
The separation of oppositely charged particles
|
|
|
Resting neuron
|
A neuron not conducting an impulse. Polarized
|
|
|
Sodium-Potassium Pump
|
Actively transports ions across the plasma membrane
|
|
|
Resting Membrane Potential
|
a result of different concentrations of Na+ and K+ ions inside and outside the cell.
|
|
|
Excitability
|
the capacity of nerves and other tissues to generate and sometimes propagate action potentials, in other words, signals that serve to control intracellular processes, such as muscle contraction, synaptic transmitter release or hormone secretion.
|
|
|
Stimulus
|
A detectable change in the internal or external environment. That which influences or causes a temporary increase of physiological activity or response in the whole organism or in any of its parts.
|
|
|
Action Potential
|
A short-term change in the electrical potential on the surface of a cell
|
|
|
Repolarization
|
The change in membrane potential that returns it to a negative value just after the depolarization phase of an action potential has changed the membrane potential to a positive value.
|
|
|
Refractory period
|
a period during which a nerve or muscle is incapable of responding to stimulation, esp immediately following a previous stimulation.
|
|
|
Threshold stimulus
|
a stimulus that is just strong enough to elicit a response.
|
|
|
All or none Principle
|
under given conditions the response of a nerve or muscle fiber to a stimulus at any strength above the threshold is the same: the muscle or nerve responds completely or not at all.
|
|
|
Saltatory Conduction
|
the propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials.
|
|
|
Nodes of Ranvier
|
a gap occurring at regular intervals between segments of myelin sheath along a nerve axon.
|
|
|
Synapse
|
the gap junction between two apposed neurons that allows faster nerve transmission.
|
|
|
Synaptic Cleft
|
the space between neurons at a nerve synapse across which a nerve impulse is transmitted by a neurotransmitter
|
|
|
Neurotransmitters
|
A chemical that is released from a nerve cell which thereby transmits an impulse from a nerve cell to another nerve, muscle, organ, or other tissue. A messenger of neurologic information from one cell to another.
|
|
|
Synaptic vesicles
|
Stores various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse. The release is regulated by a voltage-dependent calcium channel. Vesicles are essential for propagating nerve impulses between neurons and are constantly recreated by the cell.
|
|
|
Excitatory signals
|
a synapse in which an action potential in a presynaptic neuron increases the probability of an action potential occurring in a postsynaptic cell.
|
|
|
Inhibitory Signals
|
A synapse that lowers permeability making it unlikely that an impulse will start.
|
|
|
Spatial Summation
|
a way of achieving an action potential in a neuron with input from multiple presynaptic cells.
|
|
|
Temporal summation
|
A high frequency of action potentials in the presynaptic neuron elicits postsynaptic potentials that overlap and summate with each other. Facilitation
|
|
|
White Matter
|
tissue of the brain and spinal cord, consisting mainly of nerve fibers with their myelin sheaths.
|
|
|
Grey Matter
|
tissue of the brain and spinal cord, consisting mainly of nerve cell bodies and branching dendrites.
|
|
|
Nerve
|
a whitish fiber or bundle of fibers that transmits impulses of sensation to the brain or spinal cord, and impulses from these to the muscles and organs.
|
|
|
Tract
|
a major passage in the body, large bundle of nerve fibers, or other continuous elongated anatomical structure or region.
|
|
|
Ganglion
|
a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies, typically linked by synapses, and often forming a swelling on a nerve fiber.
|
|
|
Spinal cord
|
the cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissue that is enclosed in the spine and connects nearly all parts of the body to the brain, with which it forms the central nervous system
|
|
|
Meninges
|
the three membranes that line the skull and vertebral canal and enclose the brain and spinal cord.
|
|
|
Cerebro-Spinal Fluid
|
clear watery fluid that fills the space between the meninges layers
|
|
|
Dorsal Roots
|
Transmits sensory information, forming the afferent sensory root of a spinal nerve. One of two "roots" which emerge from the spinal cord.
|
|
|
Ventral Roots
|
One of the two roots of a spinal nerve that passes anteriorly from the spinal cord separating the anterior and lateral funiculi and that consists of motor fibers
|
|
|
Oval Window
|
Entrance to the cochlea
|
|
|
Round Window
|
Exit from the Cochlea
|
|
|
Auditory tube
|
a tube that connects the pharynx to the middle ear space allowing for equalization of pressure across the eardrum.
|
|
|
Middle Ear
|
Part of the ear that consists of the Ossicles, Round Window, Oval Window, and Auditory Tube
|
|
|
Outer Ear
|
Part of the ear that consists of the Pinna, External Auditory Meatus, and Tympanic Membrane
|
|
|
Inner Ear
|
Part of the ear that consists of the Cochlea and Vestibule
|
|
|
Cochlea
|
Spiral shape tube where soundwaves (Vibrations) are transduced into neural impulses
|
|
|
Vestibule
|
Is in charge of static equilibrium. Stimulated by change in linear movement
|
|
|
Static Equilibrium
|
Orientation of the head in reference to gravity
|
|
|
Macula
|
Patches of hair cells that contain stone-like calcium particles that cause stimulation of hair by movement
|
|
|
Semicircular canal
|
interconnected tubular canals in the inner ear
|
|
|
Ampulla (of the Ear)
|
Swelling at the base of semicircular canals tht contain “hair cells” which detect the movement of fluid through the canals
|
|
|
Dynamic Equilibrium
|
Detection of movement, especially rotational
|
|
|
Mechanoreceptors
|
a sense organ or cell that responds to mechanical stimuli such as touch or sound.
|
