Exercise Physiology, Midterm

Front 1

What are the 4 factors that influence VO2max?

Back 1

1) Cardiac Output
2) Muscle Metabolism
3) Lung Diffusion
4) Blood Oxygen Carrying Capacity (Hematocrit level)

*3&4 have little change w/ exercise

Front 2

What are two fixed factors that influence VO2max?

Back 2

-Hematocrit levels
-Lung diffusion

Front 3

Formula for Cardiac Output (CO)

Back 3

Q (L/min) = SV (L/beat) x HR (beat/min)

Front 4

Formula for VO2

Back 4

VO2 = (SV x HR) x (a-VO2 diff)

Front 5

How do you improve your a-VO2 difference?

Back 5

With regards to a-VO2 diff, exercise will:
-increase the capillarization of muscle fibers
-increase mitochondrial density, which helps muscle's ability to extract O2 from the blood

*Max adaptations are in the muscular system

Front 6

What is the approx. CO of a sedentary individual at rest?

Back 6

~5L/min

Training increases SV, decreases HR

Front 7

Muscle Isoform of Lactate Dehydrogenase

Back 7

- High affinity for pyruvate
- Found in highly glycolytic fibers
- Is used when the cell has a high energy demand, but low energy charge
- It helps maintain cytosolic reduced hydrogen carrier concentration to maximize Gly-3-P

Front 8

Heart Isoform of Lactate Dehydrogenase

Back 8

- Has high affinity for lactate
- Is found in the heart, liver, and type I muscle fibers
- Has high activity at rest and at low exercise intensities

Front 9

Adaptive-Control Ratio

Back 9

Systems adapt at the same rate and same degree, independent of training plan at the beginning

-VO2 only increases 40% max in athletes
-Important for periodization plans: workout things that can increase in adaptation

Front 10

How do you raise your max steady state (MSS)?

Back 10

Focus on Type II muscle fiber adaptations

*Short, high-intensity Interval Training*

Front 11

Lactate Domain I

Back 11

- No change in blood lactate from resting levels over time, or with increase in exercise intensity (caps at OBLA)

Front 12

Lactate Domain II

Back 12

- Increases blood lactate above resting levels, but reach MSS below 4-5 mM w/i 3-5 minutes

Front 13

Lactate Domain III

Back 13

- Exponential increases in blood lactate over time
- Results in exhaustion

Front 14

3 Parameters to Increase Overload

Back 14

1) Frequency
2) Intensity
3) Duration

*4) Mode

Front 15

3 Methods of Calculating Max HR

Back 15

1) Age-Predicted HRmax
220-age (male)
226-age (female)

2) Functional HRmax

3) Prescribed HRmax (for rehabilitation)

Front 16

Training Sensitive Zone (TSZ)

Back 16

The % of HRmax that is optimal for adaptations

*ACSM Guidelines & Optimal Guidelines*

Front 17

TSZ by the ACSM

Back 17

- % HRmax
Healthy = 65-90%
Sedentary = 55-64%
- % HRR/ % VO2max
Healthy = 50-85%
Sedentary = 40-49%
- RPE
Healthy = 3-7
Sedentary = 3-7

Front 18

Heart Rate Reserve (HRR)

Back 18

HRR = HRmax - RHR

An indicator of the ability of the heart to increase CO independent of SV

*Using Karvonen Formula, 1:1 ratio bet. %HRR & %VO2max

Front 19

Karvonen Formula

Back 19

HR = [(HRmax - RHR) x %TSZ] + RHR

*Direct relationship between %VO2max & %%HRRmax
*Use exercise response (HR) to determine %TSZ & %VO2max

Front 20

Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)

Back 20

Scale used to determine level of exertion during exercise

- Borg Scale (6-20)
- Modified Scale (0-10)
3 = conversation pace (close to OBLA)
7 = intermittent conversation (close to MSS)

Front 21

ACSM Guidelines for Cardiorespiratory FITNESS

Back 21

1) Frequency = 3-5 days/wk
2) Intensity = 55/65-90% HRmax
or 40/50-85% HRR/VO2R
3) Duration = 20-60 continuous or intermittent (10 min bouts 3x/day)
4) Mode = Use large muscle groups, continuous, rhythmic/aerobic in nature

Front 22

Two types of Workouts for OPTIMAL Cardiovascular Training

Back 22

1) Continuous Workouts
- Long, Steady Distance (LSD)
- Duration
- Threshold

2) Intermittent Workouts
- Long (aerobic) intervals
- Short (anaerobic) intervals

Front 23

Optimal Frequency for Cardiovascular Training

Back 23

5-7 days/ week

Front 24

Long, Steady Distance

Back 24

Intensity:
~50% VO2max (to reduce fatigue, for recovery)

Duration:
60-120 minutes

Primary Adaptations:
CV System, Increase VO2max, Type I muscle fibers

Front 25

Duration Workouts

Back 25

Intensity:
~50% VO2max

Duration:
Time of Event +- 25%

Primary Adaptations:
Systemic (thermoregulatory, digestive, endocrine, nueral)

Front 26

Threshold Workouts

Back 26

Intensity:
MSS

Duration:
20-40 minutes

Primary Adaptations:
Increase lactate clearance, Type IIa oxidative capacity

Front 27

Long (aerobic) Intervals

Back 27

Intensity:
Above MSS, Below VO2max

Duration:
3-5 min, Total time 15-25 min

Primary Adaptations:
Type IIx --> Type IIa

Front 28

Short (anaerobic) Intervals

Back 28

Intensity:
Above VO2max

Duration:
30-90 seconds, Total 5-15 min

Primary Adaptations:
Neuromuscular Efficiency

Front 29

Recovery during Intermittent Exercise

Back 29

Active:
-Increase La+ oxidative capacity
-Increase overall La+ clearance

Passive:
-Increase liver, kidney, type I skeletal muscle gluconeogenic capacity

Front 30

Work to Rest Ratio for Cardiorespiratory Exercise

Back 30

Positive: 1:1 - 1:4 Range (Running intervals)

Negative: 2:1 - 4-1 Range (Swimming intervals)

*Rest between intervals increase F-1,6-Pase (Rate-limiting enzyme for Gluconeogenesis)

*More important to finish interval than to have a shorter rest period

Front 31

CV Changes Induced by Training at Rest

Back 31

1) Decrease HR
-Dec. intrinsic Atrial rate
-Inc. parasympathetic tone
-Dec. sympathetic influence

2) Increase Stroke Volume
-Inc. myocardial contractility (force production)
-Inc. blood volume/hemoglobin
-Inc. ventricular muscle hypertrophy/capillary density

3) Cardiac Hypertrophy (L vent)
-Inc. ventricular cavity (endurance)
-Inc. myocardial thickness (non-endurance)

Front 32

Respiratory System Changes Induced by CV Training

Back 32

- Inc. Max Minute Ventilation
--> Inc. tidal volume
--> Inc. breathing frequency
- Inc. Ventilatory efficiency
- Inc. Lung volumes
- Inc. Diffusion capacity

Front 33

Biochemical Changes in Skeletal Muscle by CV Training

Back 33

AEROBIC:
-⇑ myoglobin content
-⇑ glycogen oxidation
⇑ #/size of mitochondria
⇑ Krebs cycle activity
⇑ muscle stores of glycogen
-⇑ oxidation of lipids/FFA
-⇑ intracellular buffer (carnosine)

ANAEROBIC
-⇑ capacity of ATP-PC system
⇑ mulscular stores of ATP/PC
⇑ ATP turnover enzyme activity
- ⇑ Glycolytic capacity
⇑ Glycogen storage capacity
⇑ Glycolytic enzyme activity
⇑ Glycogenolytic enzymes

Front 34

Reasons for La+ Production During Exercise

Back 34

-Produces NAD+ (when ATP requirements > oxidative capacity)

-Pyruvate formed @ greater rate than mitochondrial enzymes

-LDH activity high in muscle (high affinity for pyruvate)

-Stimulates glycogenolysis & glycolysis during exercise

Front 35

Factors Determining Fate of La+ after Exercise

Back 35

-Metabolic rate (Rest vs. Exercise)
-Type/Intensity of activity (Active/Passive)
-Muscle fiber type
-Size/site of La+ Pool @ end of exercise

Front 36

Consequences of La+ Production on Skeletal Muscle Work Capacity

Back 36

-High La+ --> drop in pH
-Inhibits glycolytic/glycogenolytic enzymes (PFK, Phosphatase)
-Interferes w/ Ca2+ release & uptake by SR
-Interferes w/ contraction-coupling process by binding to troponin
- ⇓ACh binding @ neuromuscular junction
-Inhib. FFA mobilization from adipocytes
Less FFA = ⇑ CHO reliance, early exhaustion

Front 37

What is a benefit of Lactate Production?

Back 37

The conversion of Pyruvate to Lactate allows for the regeneration of NAD+ and higher ATP regeneration rates than possible through aerobic pathways

Front 38

How do you maintain adaptations while decreasing overload?

Back 38

-By reducing intensity, there is a large decrease in VO2max
-For endurance, you can reduce frequency OR duration by 2/3, AS LONG as you MAINTAIN intensity to maintain performance

Front 39

Effect of Frequency on Cytokine-C

Back 39

> 2 days/week of Type IIx (i.e. anaerobic interval training) provides NO ADDED BENEFIT

*Minimize stress with optimal gain

Front 40

3 Segments of a Workout Structure

Back 40

1) Warm-Up (7-10+min)
-Generalized
-Sports-specific segment
2) Training & conditioning
3) Cool-Down
-Generalized
-Flexibility

Front 41

Benefits of a Warm-Up

Back 41

1) Enhanced muscle contractions
2) ⇑ core temperature (less risk of injuries, ⇑ muscle extensibility)
3) Quicker nerve transmission (improves rxn time)
4) Preps CV/lungs for vigorous exercise
5) Joint protection (⇑ ROM, releases synovial fluid)
6) ⇑ calorie efficiency (earlier crossover point)

Front 42

What does an optimal warm-up consist of?

Back 42

-Continuous rhythmic movements to raise core temp.
-Mainly focus on cardiovascular
-Fully activate all systems
-Avoid static/single-joint dynamic stretches (they inhibit rise in core temp)

Front 43

Reasons for Lack of Progress with Training Program

Back 43

1) Poor program structure
-Poor choice of exercise
-Too many/too few exercises
-Poor technique/improper execution
-Continuous alteration of program (let the systems adapt)
2) Missing workouts
3) Excess overload
4) Insufficient overload
5) Poor diet (need enough/proper nutrients for recovery/adaptation)
6) Not enough rest
7) Too many "outside" stressors

Front 44

2 Phases of a Repetition

Back 44

1) Concentric muscle action (lifting resistance against gravity)

2) Eccentric muscle action (lowering resistance with gravity)

Front 45

Set

Back 45

A group of reps performed continuously before rest

*Multiple sets of an exer. performed before moving to next exer.

Front 46

Super Set

Back 46

2 sets performed sequentially before rest (antagonist or same muscles)

Front 47

Repetition Maximum (RM)

Back 47

Max # of reps of an exercise performed with proper technique and movement execution

Front 48

Fiber Type Ranges for RM Relationship

Back 48

- Fast-Twitch, Type II: 3-8RM, 80-90% 1-RM

- Slow-Twitch, Type I: 12-20RM, 60-70% 1-RM

Front 49

Strength

Back 49

Max force a muscle/muscle group can generate @ a specific velocity

Front 50

Power

Back 50

The rate of performing work

Power = (Weight lifted x Vertical distance lifted) / Time to complete rep

Front 51

Neural Adaptations for Strength

Back 51

"Muscle Memory"

- ⇑ firing frequency of action potentials
- ⇑ motor unit recruitment
- Elimination of cocontractions

Front 52

Isometric Resistance Training

Back 52

aka Static
No change in joint angle or muscle length
-Primary focus on connective tissue adaptations
-Used for injuries/rehabilitation

Front 53

Dynamic Constant External Resistance Training

Back 53

DCER, aka Isotonic

Weight being lifted is constant and held constant

Front 54

Variable Resistance

Back 54

Resistance operates through lever arm, pulley arrangement

Resistance altered to attempt to match increase and decrease in strength throughout ROM

Front 55

Isokinetic Resistance Training

Back 55

Performed @ constant angular velocity

Typically at slow (~60 degrees/sec) or fast (~300 degrees+/sec) angular velocity

Front 56

Eccentric Training

Back 56

aka Forced Negatives
Muscle lengthens in a controlled manner during contraction

Resistance > 1-RM
1 EccRM = 120-140% SVRM

Front 57

Stretch-Shortening Cycle

Back 57

aka Plyometrics

Sequence of eccentric to concentric actions performed quickly; muscle is stretched slightly before concentric action, storing elastic energy

Front 58

3 Goals of Resistance Training

Back 58

1) Strength (tone) - ⇑ max force generation, slow velocity

2) Power - ⇑ max explosive force generation, ⇑ @ fast velocities of contraction

3) Hypertrophy - ⇑ muscle size through ⇑ myofibrillar content

Front 59

Slow-Velocity ST

Back 59

Loads @ 100% SV-RM for specific muscle fiber types

3-8 SV-RM

Slow, controlled movement speed throughout entire ROM

Primary focus on concentric phase

Front 60

Fast-Velocity Power Training

Back 60

Loads @ 20-40% SV-RM for type II muscle fibers or 100% FV-RM

3-8 FV-RM

Fast, explosive movement during concentric phase

Velocity of movement critical, max speed

Front 61

Eccentric-Hypertrophy Training

Back 61

Loads @ 120-140% SV-RM for specific muscle fiber types or 100% Ecc-RM

3-8 Ecc-RM
Slow, controlled movement through eccentric ROM

Negatives/forced reps

Front 62

Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

Back 62

-Occurs independent of stretching/massage
-Connective tissue damage
-More damage in ECCENTRIC motion

Front 63

ACSM Resistance Training Guidelines for < 50 years

Back 63

1-3 Sets

8-12 RM

8-10 Exercises

2-3 days/week

Front 64

ACSM Resistance Training Guidelines for >50 years

Back 64

1-3 Sets

10-15 RM

8-10 Exercises

2-3 days/week

Front 65

What are the guidelines for resistance training for the 1st 2-3 months of training?

Back 65

Do 1 set w/ 8-12 reps (NOT RM)

Adaptations are primarily neural

Front 66

Optimal Resistance Training Guidelines

Back 66

10-15 total sets for large muscle groups first

8-12 total sets for small muscle groups second

Min. 2 warm-up sets for 1st exercise; @ least 1 warm-up set for subsequent exercises

3-5 minute rest between RM sets

Multijoint exercises before isolation exercises

1 PUSH day, 1 PULL day

Front 67

3 Sites of Carbohydrate Stores

Back 67

1) Skeletal Muscle Glycogen (10-40 g/kg) --> Influenced by exercise & diet

2) Liver Glycogen (4-12g/kg) --> diet impacted

3) Blood Glucose (65-100mg/dL)

Front 68

Maintenance of [Glu]p in the Post-absorptive State

Back 68

Glucagon's action @ liver (glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, & glu-6-Pase activation) & proteolysis of skeletal muscle by catabolic hormones

Front 69

Maintenance of [Glu]p in the Absorptive State

Back 69

With insulin, stimulation of GLUT-4ir transporters in skeletal muscle & adipose in addition to GLUT-4er transporter's activation in skeletal muscle by exercise

Front 70

Dietary Carbohydrates

Back 70

1) Monosaccharides (Glu, Fru, Ribose, etc)

2) Disaccharides (Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose, etc)

3) Polysaccharides (Starch, fiber)

Front 71

Glycogen Depletion

Back 71

Increased Exercise intensity = Increased Carb utilization

80% depletion @ 90 minutes, slows pace

120% depletion had Type IIx depletion

Carb intake exhaustion coincides w/ liver depletion

Front 72

Impact of Glycogen Content on Exercise Performance

Back 72

Aerobic Performance
Max power generation of 2.7 mM ATP/kg/s
Influences both exercise duration & time to exhaustion

Anaerobic Performance

Front 73

Window of Opportunity

Back 73

50-75 g CHO immediately after exercise + 1 hour post w/ 15-25g protein

Critical for muscle glycogen resynthesis & recovery

Front 74

What does combining CHO & Protein do?

Back 74

-Increases glycogen resynth. & compensation
-Improves endocrine & nutrient environment for adaptation
-Limit catabolic breakdown, enhances anabolic repair

1:4 to 1:3 ratio Pro:CHO dependent on BW

Front 75

CHO Recommendations

Back 75

On a g per kg basis

Low Intensity: 7g/kg/day
Moderate: 8.5g/kg/day
High: 10g/kg/day

**Multiply by 4 Cal/g to get # calories

**Absolute amount CRITICAL, not relative amount

Front 76

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

Back 76

UNIDIRECTIONAL

An enzyme involved in cellular respiration once the pyruvate enters the mitochondria

Front 77

Benefits of Consuming Protein

Back 77

1) Changes body from catabolic state to anabolic state

2) Increase muscle synthesis

3) Limits protein catabolism

Front 78

Muscle Branched Chain Amino Acids

Back 78

They are digested quickly and distributed to the bloodstream to be quickly metabolized

Athletes supplement to enhance performance and decrease muscle loss

*Signif. increase in BCAA levels 4 hours post-exercise w/ Pro-CHO intake

Front 79

What are the best types of PROTEIN to consume?

Back 79

Greater protein synthesis w/ WHEY & SOY @ rest and post-exercise

Front 80

Protein Recommendations

Back 80

Low Intensity: 1 g/kg BW/day
Moderate: 1.5 g/kg/day
High: 2 g/kg/day

*Multiply by 4 Cal/g to get # Cal per day

Front 81

Lipids & Performance

Back 81

Diet optimal for health also optimal for performance

-10-30% total calories from fat recommended depending on athletes
-Low saturated FA/trans FA (<3% total kcal)

Front 82

Daily Lipid Recommendations

Back 82

@ 10% total Calories from fat:
(g PRO + g CHO) x 0.049 = g/day x 9 Cal/g = Calories

@ 20%:
(g PRO + g CHO) x 0.112 = g/day x 9 Cal/g = Calories

Front 83

Fluid Balance

Back 83

Water balance has largest acute impact on performance

Plasma volume lost through thermoregulation decreases cardiac function --> decrease cell f'n to counteract the decrease in cardiac f'n

Front 84

How do you watch your fluid balance?

Back 84

-Weight yourself on a daily basis while wearing sweaty clothes (H2O losses very observable)
*Not necessarily by urine color (color can be from excess water-soluble vitamins)

Front 85

Influence of Body Fluid Loss on Exercise Performance

Back 85

2% Dehydration --> 10% physiological f'n, increased thirst

5% --> muscle cramps, heat exhaustion

7% --> extreme dehydration, hallucination, heat stroke

7-10% --> death

*Increased heat & humidity = Increased rate of dehydration

Front 86

Optimal Fluid Hydration Beverage

Back 86

1) Tastes good to athlete
2) No gastrointestinal discomfort when consumed in large volumes
3) Promotes rapid fluid absorption & maintenance of ECF volume
4) Provides energy for working muscles

Composition: 6-8% CHO sol'n

Front 87

What does the ACSM recommend for consumption of fluid hydration beverages?

Back 87

4-8 oz of 6% solution every 15-20 minutes during exercise

Front 88

When does heat acclimation occur?

Back 88

Heat acclimation occurs within 2 weeks from start of training (aka train in the most optimal environment possible!)

Front 89

3 Techniques of Flexibility

Back 89

1) Ballistic
2) Static
3) Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

Front 90

Principles of Flexibility

Back 90

Specificity:
-Joint-specific, task/sport-specific
-Analyze task/sport to determine joints & plane of motion

Overload:
-Place muscle/connective tissue @/near normal limits of extensibility, hold position to achieve elongation

Front 91

Static Stretching

Back 91

Def'n: form of stretching where mucle is stretched slowly and put into position of max/near-max stretch by contraction of opposing muscle group
[hold for 30-60 seconds]