Exam 2

Front 1

Lateral Giant Escape

Back 1

Abrupt stimulus evokes a short-latency and flexion of 10ms tail flip, of an upward adn forward motion leading to the first half of a somersault. Moving it up and away from the stimulus.

Front 2

Medial Giant Escape

Back 2

Visual stimulus with an abrupt onset to the front. A rapid tail flip that propels the animal backward.

Front 3

Non-giant Escape

Back 3

The stimulus is not as abrupt, and does not involve LGIs or MGIs. It is of long-latency and occurs as a tail flip, alternating extension and flexion then swimming.

Front 4

Motor Giants

Back 4

Powerful synaptic connections to flexor motor neurons called these, which connect to all the fast flexor muscles in each abdominal segment.

Front 5

LGI Circuit Part 1

Back 5

1. Sensory Input- from 1,000 cuticular hairs that cover the abdomen, containing bipolar receptors that are directionally sensitive to movement, and produce activation of the flexor system.

Front 6

LGI Circuit Part 2

Back 6

2. Sensory Interneurons- Receive direct input form sensory neurons and relay that input to the LGIs. A-cells fire phasically to tail fan input and project up to the brain, providing input to the LGIs in each abdominal ganglion, and C-cells among a class of cells that fire tonically to input and project to the LGIs in each abdominal segment.

Front 7

LGI Circuit Part 3

Back 7

3. LGIs

Front 8

LGI Circuit Part 4

Back 8

4. MOGs- Extend thin processes that then expand near the exit in the third root and give off tufted dendrite through which the LGIs make direct electrical contact.

Front 9

LGI Circuit Part 5

Back 9

5. Fast Flexor Muscles- 5 phasic flexor muscles all innervated by the MOG

Front 10

Pathways of the Tail-flip circuit.

Back 10

1. sensory neurons make contact with LGIs indirectly through A-type and C-type interneurons, and directly through electrical synapse.
2. Via an intervening premotor interneuron called the Segmental Giant, which receives and electrical connection form the LGI and then makes electrical synapses onto several fast flexor neurons.

Front 11

Axons

Back 11

Lateral and giant axons with cell bodies and dendrites in the brain, receive sensory input. Lateral of separate cells connected end to end by means of electrical synapses called septate/segmental/synapses.

Front 12

Escape Response by the LGI

Back 12

1. rapid flexion of the abdomen
2. reextension of the abdomen 3. swimming

Front 13

Flexion

Back 13

Best response by a tap to the abdomen or tail fan.
When it triggers a spike in the LGIs, activate output to the fast flexor muscles by: 1. powerful electrical excitation of the Motor Giants, then excites the fast flexor muscles. Activated by the giant axons. 2. Through the segmental giant, with which the LGIs make electrical synapses.

Front 14

LGIs as decision-makers

Back 14

1. Action potentials of the LGIs are sufficient to produce a normal escape response. 2. Action potentials in the LGIs are necessary for the normal response to occur. As a command neuron- the electrical stimulation of single interneurons in the crayfish evoked coordinated, rhythmic movements of small paddlelike abdominal appendages called swimmerets. Activation of these neurons individually typically gave rise to some form of complex behavioral output.

Front 15

Command-derived Inhibition

Back 15

In preventing other competing behaviors from being expressed, and in preparing the way for the expression of the next components of the overall escape behavior. It is widespread and differs in temporal characteristics.

Front 16

Sites of Command-Derived Inhibition

Back 16

1. LGIs and MGIs inhibited following an LGI spike.
2. Sensory inflow- postsynaptic inhibition and presynaptic of afferent-to-sensory interneuron synapses
3. Motor Giants- After sufficient time has elapsed for them to discharge only once. Prevents another flexor discharge form occurring before reextension.
4. Fast Flexor Muscles- At the time when peak behavioral flexion is accomplished.

Front 17

Reextension

Back 17

Sources: 1. Muscle Receptor Organ MRO- signals the ongoing state of abdominal stretch to the CNS initiates extension and inhibits flexion, like a chain reflex.
2. Hair receptors on the abdomen.

Front 18

Swimming

Back 18

Series of nongiant responses and triggered by activation of the hair receptors on the abdomen. Mediated by a central pattern generator, because it does not require feedback.

Front 19

Modulation of the Escape Response

Back 19

1. restraint-induced inhibition
2. motivation
3. learning

Front 20

1. Restraint-induced inhibition

Back 20

Restraint of the animal, which reduces the probability of a tail flip response. When the nerve cord is severed at the thoracic-abdominal junction, restraint-induced inhibition is abolished.

Front 21

2. Motivation

Back 21

In a conflicting situation in which they are engaged in one highly motivated behavior like feeding, when another stimulus arises, like a tap to the tail fan. What to do? Feeding behavior raises the threshold of the LGI-mediated escape responses but leaves other escape routes open. 1. One is initiated by the LGIs themselves (command-derived inhibition), to ensure the second tail flip cannot be triggered while an ongoing flip is in progress.(absolute) 2. Restraint or feeding, tonic inhibition is responsible (relative)

Front 22

Learning

Back 22

Habituation known as the reduction in a behavioral response produced by repeated stimulation. Self-habituation is prevented by a command-derived inhibition, the mechanisms under an induced LGI tail flip are concomitantly suppressed, while escape responses are triggered.

Front 23

Neuromodulators

Back 23

Released in a broader area and targeted. Bind to receptors in the cell membrane, generally linked to G proteins that activate intracellular signaling cascades. Effects are 1. modulation of ion channels and receptors 2. changes in protein synthesis, enzyme activity, and gene transcription

Front 24

Monoamines

Back 24

Are neuromodulators from single amino acids. Like dopamine, noradrenaline, octopamine, and serotonin. Mediate a variety of cns functions in vertebrate brain.

Front 25

Octopamine in flight in locusts

Back 25

Level rises in cns system during stress, and increases ventilation and cardiac contraction amplitude, and sensitize specific neuronal commponents of flight and escape.

Front 26

Locust Flight Behavior

Back 26

Controlled by a central pattern generator.

Front 27

Octopamine and flight experiments

Back 27

Injection of it releases a flight-like motor pattern. Also when applied to the bath medium surrounding thoracic ganglion.

Front 28

Octopaminergic neurons sufficient to evoke flight?

Back 28

Neurons called dorsal or ventral unpaired median neurons DUM or VUM neurons release octopamine.

Front 29

Necessary to evoke flight?

Back 29

Using reserpine to deplete the synaptic content of all monoaminergic neurons show impairment in the ability of insects to generate flight sequences. Octopamine, dopamine or both are necessary for flight behavior.

Front 30

Octopamine on muscles

Back 30

Increases twitch tension of skeletal muscles, it reduces tetanic tensions and increases relaxation rates, allowing muscles to be activated at faster frequencies without the buildup of basal tensions.

Front 31

Octopamine on metabolism

Back 31

Increases the release of free lipids from the fat body and in addition improves oxygen uptake from tracheae.

Front 32

Dopamine in the venom of wasps.

Back 32

Hunts cockroaches, stinging in head and laying a single egg, and grooms for 30 minutes, then motionless and unable to escape. Wasp grabs by it's antennae and uses it as food, in 6 weeks a wasp emerges. By attacking the prey's central nervous system.

Front 33

Dopamine and grooming.

Back 33

It is the most potent inducer of grooming, and alone is sufficient to induce grooming.

Front 34

Necessary for inducing grooming?

Back 34

Venom induces excessive grooming predominantly by acting via the dopaminergic system.

Front 35

Monoamines in invertebrate.

Back 35

Aggression in lobsters and crickets as a stance for a winner vs. loser, winning with high levels of serotonin with an injection to losers results in a renewed willingness to engage in encounters.

Front 36

Vertebrates Aggression

Back 36

Rather lower serotonin levels are associated with enhanced aggression.

Front 37

Dopamine in humans

Back 37

Involved with grooming, but in voluntary locomotor control, pleasure or reward systems, emotion, and cognition.

Front 38

Production of Song

Back 38

Elementrary units/notes, combined into syllables, then strung together into complex phrases. Within a species specific song dialects are transmitted from one generation to another. Songs with neighbors can vary.

Front 39

Anatomy

Back 39

9 air-sacs, precise coordination with respiration, vocal organ is syrinx (junction of the trachea and the primary bronchi). Sound generated by vibration of the internal tympaniform membranes, air is expelled from air sacs to the bronchi.

Front 40

William Thorpe's Experiments

Back 40

1. young birds learned songs through imitation
2. song learning can only occur during a critical period, ending before sexual maturity from 10 to 50 days old.

Front 41

Experiment With 2 tutors

Back 41

picks species own song

Front 42

Experiment with isolation

Back 42

produces simple song

Front 43

Experiment with deaf

Back 43

produces abnormal song

Front 44

Experiment with 1 tutor of a different species

Back 44

produces tutor song

Front 45

Phases of song

Back 45

1. sensory phase
2. sensorimotor phase
3. crystallized

Front 46

1. sensory motor

Back 46

Hears and memorized father's song, no singing.

Front 47

2. sensorimotor

Back 47

With vocal practice. Subsong (substage 1) is a soft series of sounds that are vairable in timing and pattern, like babbling in babies. Plastic song (second substage) Rehearsal of previously learned song begins. Temporal pattern similar to adult, but duration and compostition is variable. Overproduction of syllables only 1/3 go to crystallized.

Front 48

3. crystallized

Back 48

Full song is express and remains unchanged from season to season.

Front 49

Exceptions in Song

Back 49

Zebra-Finch and sparrow are age-limited learners, exposed to song before 60 days learn it, but nothing after it.
Canary is open-ended learners, no limit to changing song.
Only if the song is combined with a visual signal, while crowned sparrows adopt the song form other species.

Front 50

Circuits in the song system

Back 50

Motor pathway (production) NIF, HVc, RA, VL, NXII
Interior forebrain (learning) DLM, Area X, LMAN
Forebrain auditory input (sensory feedback and memory)

Front 51

Sexually dimorphic

Back 51

In zebra finches, males seing and females do not. Under steroid hormonal control = testosterone. Levels rise in male songbirds during the breeding period.

Front 52

Male swamp sparrows castrated early in life.

Back 52

Go through some delayed stages of song development but never attain a normal crystallized song. Testosterone replacement therapy rescues normal song development as long as it is present.

Front 53

Zebra Finch females with early estrogen treatment injected with testosterone as adults.

Back 53

Sing and perform courtship behavior.

Front 54

Testosterone

Back 54

levels in blood increase in late spring and early spring. The size of the HVC and RA undergo seasonal volume changes in males.

Front 55

Song Learning

Back 55

Addition of new neurons = neurogenesis.

Front 56

Laterality

Back 56

Lesion of the left HVC causes major dispruption of the song patterns, lesion of the right HVC has only modest effect like the hemispheric dominance for song control.

Front 57

Electrical stimulation of the HVC neurons

Back 57

Induces a phase advance in the song pattern. HVC neurons are part of th pattern-generating circuitry of the song system.

Front 58

Neurons in the LMAN

Back 58

Respond best to the bird's own song but less to a reversed song.

Front 59

Immediate Early Genes

Back 59

Code for proteins that regulate the activity of other genes. Important in the growth of nerve cells and affect nerve cell activity. Exposure to song induces IEG response in the brain. memory of learned songs are stored in the NCM and CHV

Front 60

Dance in Bees

Back 60

The return of the forager encodes the relationship between food source and sun. Always dance on a vertical plane, then degrees of wiggling toward the sun.

Front 61

Round Dance

Back 61

Food is within 50-75 meters of the hive.

Front 62

Waggle Dance

Back 62

Food is farther than 75 meters from the hive.

Front 63

Communication

Back 63

-angular variance very close to the feeder
- distance variance measured by optic flow

Front 64

Experiment

Back 64

Vertical stripes in a tunnel increase optic flow. Results: 1. Feeder at beginning of tunnel of 35 m total Round dance. 2. Feeder at the end of tunnel 35 + 6 m Waggle dance. 3. Horizontal stripe at the end of tunnel 35 + 6 round dance 4. feeder 6 m + 6 m waggle dance. All had vertical stripes except for #3, optic flow increase, overshoots the distance. Waggle dance is the #1 cue.

Front 65

Vibrations

Back 65

Signals produced during waggle dance, usually at the edges of open combs. Evokes neural activity in leg nerve.

Front 66

Honeybees and Color

Back 66

Can be trained to associate specific color with food reward. And navigate a novel maze on color rule sets. They can see ultraviolet but not red.

Front 67

Honeybees and Patterns

Back 67

Can discriminate between complex visual patterns and abstract images with a specific orientation. Of symmetrical and asymmetrical visual patterns. Can recognize the diamond when the color or the texture of the object or background are varied. Shapes of objects on basis of their outlines.

Front 68

Proboscis Extension Reflex

Back 68

Antennae or proboscis of a hungry bee comes in contact w/sucrose, bee reflexy extends her probosici. Can be conditioned to occur if sucrose the US is with and odor of CS.

Front 69

Interstimulus Interval Function

Back 69

Examining the effect on learning of a range of CS-US intervals.

Front 70

Temporal Window

Back 70

Odor CS geraniol w/sucrose US relating to color learning, was 3s CS preceding US even w/a single training trial.

Front 71

Bees Learning

Back 71

Only if the CS and US are paired, quite rapid with only a few trials.

Front 72

Inhibitory learning

Back 72

Occurs in the 1st phase of training, retards the acquisition of learning in 2nd stage. Retardation was greater when there were greater numbers of unpaired presentations in the 1st phase. CS and US comes to be associated w/one another.

Front 73

Differential Conditioning

Back 73

PER exhibits more complex features called blocking and second order conditioning.

Front 74

Anatomy of Bee Brain

Back 74

-Antennal lobe is olfactory stimuli activate chemoreceptors on teh antennae.. mushroom bodies, ,and lateral photocerebrum

Front 75

CS pathway

Back 75

Olfactory info. flows from the antennal lobe to mushroom bodies.

Front 76

US pathway

Back 76

Info. about sucrose arise from chemorecptors that project to motor areas in subesophageal ganglion generate reflex response.

Front 77

PE1

Back 77

Receives input from Kenyon cells, unique identified mushroom body output neuron was capable of exhibiting a pairing-specific response decrement after only a single trial. After 5 trials clear increase in response to PE1. Exhibits pairing-specific changes in its firing rate following conditioning.

Front 78

VUMmx1

Back 78

Rewarding function of the US in PER conditioning. Neurons response in prolonged fashion to sucrose. Cell response actively to sucrose and that intracellular activation of this neuron can substitute for a sucrose US such that pairing an odor CS with VUMmx1 activation produces reliable PER conditioning.

Front 79

Second-Order Conditioning

Back 79

1. an odor CS1 is paired w/sucrose US until good PER conditioning is exhibited
2. odor CS2 paired w/CS1, after CS2 alone is able to elicit reliable CRs

Front 80

Magnetic Field

Back 80

Provides directional/compass info. a consistent heading in a particular direction north or south. Position and direction to a goal. Possibly by 1. the intensity of the total field 2. intensity of the horizontal field 3. intensity of the vertical field

Front 81

Loggerhead Sea Turtles

Back 81

Florida coast hatch, to North Atlantic gyre at least several years to the Atlantic Ocean. Can distinguish among magnetic fields that exist in widely separated oceanic regions. Response to these is inherited.

Front 82

Map step

Back 82

In relation to bird navigation, a bird hypothesized to assess its position relative to a destination and determine the direction that must be traveled to reach the goal.

Front 83

Compass step

Back 83

A compass mechanism was used to set a course in the desired direction.

Front 84

Experiment with magnetic map in older sea turtles

Back 84

Older sea turtles exploit magnetic information more complex than hatchlings. The ability to navigate to specific locations appears to be based at least partly on the animal's experience and learned understanding of how the Earth's field varies over a considerable geographic area.

Front 85

Spiny Lobster

Back 85

nocturnal and are capable of homing after being displaced several kilometers from a capture site. Results show that possess a magnetic map that facilitates navigation toward specific geographic areas.

Front 86

Bicoordinate Magnetic Maps

Back 86

Animals detect and exploit two different magnet field elements, to determine their location relative to a goal. However, requires cognitive and computational skills. Maybe as two separate magnetic gradients.

Front 87

Swimming the isoline

Back 87

It can recognize the magnetic isoline on which the island falls. Adopt a heading to one side or the other of the target that, when the isoline is intersected, the animal knows which direction to swim along the isoline to intersect the island.

Front 88

Magnetic waymark navigation

Back 88

Might guide animals to specific target areas during long migrations.

Front 89

Secular variation

Back 89

Magnetic map of the Earth's field is not static but instead changes gradually over time.