English Grammar And Literature Theory

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Antonym

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The almost oppositio of a word (big & small) (black and white)

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Synonym

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When the word means almost exactly the same as another (book, volume, text)

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Denotation

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A words primary, narrowest direct meaning.

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Connotation

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A words secondary or additional meaning. (A book (n), 2nd: to book (v) )

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Hyponym

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A word is regarded as a hyponym of another if it’s part of the general category and is regarded more general than its subordinate term. (A mammal - A dog - a terrier)

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Meronymy

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Part-whole relationship between the terms. (A hand - fingers, here the term ‘fingers’ is the holonym(subordinate word))

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Contronym

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Words that have their own opposite meaning (‘clip’ - attach and cut off)

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Plesionymy

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A word that is a near-synonym but doesn’t leave the same truth conditions. (‘It wasn’t misty, just foggy’, ‘he was murdered or rather executed’)

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Philonymy

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Two words are philonyms if they collocate in an expected and acceptable way. (‘A pregnant woman’, ‘The speaker can speak French’.)

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Tautonymy

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Two words are tautonyms if they only repeat without adding new value (‘war is war’, ‘boys will be boys’).

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Xenonymy

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Words which aren’t used philonymously but still create semantic dissonance (‘fat water’, ‘the inexorable sadness of pencils’).

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Phonetics

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The study of sounds as they are physically produced.

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Phonetics

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The study of sounds as they are physically produced.

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Phonology

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Investigating sounds as as an abstract system

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Phoneme

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Set of abstract units which together form the sound system of a language. / Units that distinguish one word from another. /p/ - /t/

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Phoneme

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Set of abstract units which together form the sound system of a language. / Units that distinguish one word from another. /p/ - /t/

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Transcript

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Written record of speech sounds

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Orthography

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Written system of English language

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Phonemic transcript

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Highlights the contrasts from one phoneme to another. /t/ - /p/ (pip,tip)

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Phonetic transcripts

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Realizes how the sounds are articulated by speakers. E.g. [p]

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Allophones

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Defined as phonemes that are expressed differently depending on the speaker or sounds that represent a single phoneme. E.g. allophone of ‘k’: ‘K’ in Kit is aspirated, ‘K’ in Skit is unaspirated.

Allophones of /u/: “cool”, “whose” & “moon”.

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Articulators

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Lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate, uvula and the vocal cords.

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8

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Voiced and voiceless sounds

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Voiced sounds make the vocal cords vibrate e.g. /z/. Voiceless sounds don’t.

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Bilabial

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Place of articulation: between the upper and lower lips. /p/ /b/

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Bilabial

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Place of articulation: between the upper and lower lips. /p/ /b/

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Labio-dental

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Place of articulation: lower lips and upper front teeth. /f/ /v/

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Dental

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Place of articulation: tip of the tongue touches the upper front teeth. /t/ /d/. Theta (thigh) and o’ (the)

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Alveolar

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Place of articulation: tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. /s/ /z/

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Alveolar

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Place of articulation: tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. /s/ /z/

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Palatal

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Place of articulation: central portion of the tongue touches the hard palate. /j/

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Alveolar

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Place of articulation: tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. /s/ /z/

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Palatal

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Place of articulation: central portion of the tongue touches the hard palate. /j/

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Velar

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Place of articulation: back of the tongue touches the soft palate. /k/ and /g/

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Stop

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Manner of articulation: articulators are closed for a while and then let go quickly.

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Stop

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Manner of articulation: articulators are closed for a while and then let go quickly.

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Nasal

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Manner of articulation: air escapes through the nose instead of the mouth. /m/ or /n/

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Stop

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Manner of articulation: articulators are closed for a while and then let go quickly.

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Nasal

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Manner of articulation: air escapes through the nose instead of the mouth. /m/ or /n/

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Fricative

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Manner of articulation: articulators are closed so the air has to squeeze through a small opening making a hissing sound. /f/ or /v/.

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Stop

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Manner of articulation: articulators are closed for a while and then let go quickly.

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Nasal

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Manner of articulation: air escapes through the nose instead of the mouth. /m/ or /n/

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Fricative

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Manner of articulation: articulators are closed so the air has to squeeze through a small opening making a hissing sound. /f/ or /v/.

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Approximant

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Manner of articulation: turbulence occurs due to articulators being close together. /j/ or /w/

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Stop

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Manner of articulation: articulators are closed for a while and then let go quickly.

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Nasal

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Manner of articulation: air escapes through the nose instead of the mouth. /m/ or /n/

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Fricative

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Manner of articulation: articulators are closed so the air has to squeeze through a small opening making a hissing sound. /f/ or /v/.

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Approximant

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Manner of articulation: turbulence occurs due to articulators being close together. /j/ or /w/

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Lateral approximant

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Manner of articulation: when air flows out through the side of the tongue. /l/

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Affricate

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Manner of articulation: brief stop followed by a slow release of air, with the speech organs lingering in the fricative position for a time, as in the ‘ch’ in cheese. /t~/

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Co-operative principle

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Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. (Grice 1975)

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Politeness principle

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Minimise the expression of impolite beliefs; maximize the expression of polite beliefs (all things being equal). (Leech 1983)

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Politeness principle

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Minimise the expression of impolite beliefs; maximize the expression of polite beliefs (all things being equal). (Leech 1983)

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The four maxims

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Maxim of quality

Maxim of quantity

Maxim of relevance

Maxim of manner

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Politeness principle

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Minimise the expression of impolite beliefs; maximize the expression of polite beliefs (all things being equal). (Leech 1983)

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The four maxims

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Maxim of quality

Maxim of quantity

Maxim of relevance

Maxim of manner

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Maxim of quantity

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Make your contribution to the conversation as informative as necessary. Do not make your contribution to the conversation more informative than necessary.

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Politeness principle

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Minimise the expression of impolite beliefs; maximize the expression of polite beliefs (all things being equal). (Leech 1983)

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The four maxims

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Maxim of quality

Maxim of quantity

Maxim of relevance

Maxim of manner

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Maxim of quantity

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Make your contribution to the conversation as informative as necessary. Do not make your contribution to the conversation more informative than necessary.

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Maxim of quality

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Do not say what you believe is false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

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Politeness principle

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Minimise the expression of impolite beliefs; maximize the expression of polite beliefs (all things being equal). (Leech 1983)

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The four maxims

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Maxim of quality

Maxim of quantity

Maxim of relevance

Maxim of manner

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Maxim of quantity

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Make your contribution to the conversation as informative as necessary. Do not make your contribution to the conversation more informative than necessary.

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Maxim of quality

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Do not say what you believe is false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

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Maxim of relevance

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Say only things that are relevant

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Politeness principle

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Minimise the expression of impolite beliefs; maximize the expression of polite beliefs (all things being equal). (Leech 1983)

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The four maxims

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Maxim of quality

Maxim of quantity

Maxim of relevance

Maxim of manner

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Maxim of quantity

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Make your contribution to the conversation as informative as necessary. Do not make your contribution to the conversation more informative than necessary.

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Maxim of quality

Back 69

Do not say what you believe is false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

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Maxim of relevance

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Say only things that are relevant

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Maxim of manner

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Avoid obscurity of expression

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief

Be orderly

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Acronym

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E.g. LP, CD, DVD. Atomic acronyms FBI, BBC, EU. Molecular acronyms Laser, radar.

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Acronym

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E.g. LP, CD, DVD. Atomic acronyms FBI, BBC, EU. Molecular acronyms Laser, radar.

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Inflection

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When a bound morpheme is added to a word altering the grammatical category of the free morpheme.

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Acronym

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E.g. LP, CD, DVD. Atomic acronyms FBI, BBC, EU. Molecular acronyms Laser, radar.

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Inflection

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When a bound morpheme is added to a word altering the grammatical category of the free morpheme.

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Derivation

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Adding non-inflectional affixed morphemes. Help-helpful-unhelpful

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Accent

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Refers to pronounciation.

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Accent

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Refers to pronounciation.

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Dialect

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Refers to word-choice and grammar

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Accent

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Refers to pronounciation.

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Dialect

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Refers to word-choice and grammar

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The circles model

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Braj Kachru (-86)

Inner circle: English language has its linguistic basis EFL (UK, Canada, USA, Australia)

Outer circle: english has become an official second language due to colonisation ESL (Nigeria, Singapore, Malaysia and India)

Expanding circle: English is used as a foreign language EFL (China and Japan)

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Accent

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Refers to pronounciation.

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Dialect

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Refers to word-choice and grammar

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The circles model

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Braj Kachru (-86)

Inner circle: English language has its linguistic basis EFL (UK, Canada, USA, Australia)

Outer circle: english has become an official second language due to colonisation ESL (Nigeria, Singapore, Malaysia and India)

Expanding circle: English is used as a foreign language EFL (China and Japan)

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Stylistics

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The discipline of stylistics explores the relationship between the language patterns and interpretation.

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Referring expression

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Referring a particular entity in the world

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Speech act theory in pragmatics

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Speech acts are defined as what actions we perform when we produce utterances.

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Speech act theory in pragmatics

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Speech acts are defined as what actions we perform when we produce utterances.

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Locution

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SAC in pragmatics: what the speaker literally utters, which consists of sense and reference.

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Illocution

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SAC in pragmatics: the force of what has been said as defined by social convention in the context in which it is uttered. ‘Do that now’ (illocutionary force of a command)

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Illocution

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SAC in pragmatics: the force of what has been said as defined by social convention in the context in which it is uttered. ‘Do that now’ (illocutionary force of a command)

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Perlocution

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SAC in pragmatics: the actual effect of the utterance that is exactly how it is interpreted by the hearer

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Performative speech act

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An utterance which simultaneously performs and describes the speech act. ‘I promise ‘