Education 210 Chp 1.2.3.

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Educational Psychology

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Academic discipline that...
a) systematically studies the nature of learning, child development, motivation and related topics.
b) applies its research findings to the identification and development of effective instructional practices.

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Elaboration

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Cognitive process in which learners expand on new information based on what they already know.

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Descriptive Study

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Research study that enables researchers to draw conclusions about the current state of affairs but not about correlations or cause-effect relationships.

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Correlational Study

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Research study that explores relationships among variables.

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Correlation

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Extent to which two variables are associated, such that when when one variable increases or decreases somewhat predictably.

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Experimental Study

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Research study that involves the manipulation of one variable to determine its possible effect on another variable, allowing conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships.

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Treatment Group

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Group of people in a research study who are given a particular experimental intervention.

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Control Group

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Group of people in a research study who are given either no intervention or one that is unlikely to have an effect on the dependent variable.
**Placebo treatment.

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Theory

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Integrated set of concepts and prinicples developed to explain a particular phenomenon.

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Group Differences

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Consistenly observed differences (on avg) among diverse groups of students.

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Students with special needs

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Students different enough from their peers that they require specially adapted instructional materials and practices.

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Inclusion

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Practice of educating all students, including those with severe and multiple disabilities, in neighborhood schools and general education classrooms.

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Pedagogical Content Knowledge

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Knowledge about effective methods of teaching a specific content area.

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Self-Efficacy

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Belief that one is capable of executing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals.

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Critical Thinking

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Process of evaluation the accuracy and worth of information and lines of reasoning.

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Reflective Teaching

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Regular, ongoing examination and critique of one's assumptions and instructional strategies and revision of them as necessary to enhance student's learning and development.

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Action Research

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Research conducted by teachers and other school personnel to address issues and problems in their own schools or classrooms.

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Cognitive Development

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Development of increasingly sophisticated thinking and reasoning processes with age.

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Linguistic Development

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Development of increasingly sophisticated understanding and use of language with age.

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Ddevelopmental Milstone

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Appearance of a new, more advanced behavior that indicates significant progress in a child's development.

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Universals

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Similar patters in how children change and progress over time regardless of their specific environment.

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Stage Theory

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Theory that depicts development as a series of relatively discrete periods, or stages.

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Maturation

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Unfolding of genetically controlled changes as a child develops.

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Culture

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Behaviors and belief systems of a long-standing social group.

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Sensitive Period

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Age range during whicha a certain aspect of a child's development is especially susceptible to environmental conditions.

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Neuron

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Cell in the brain or another part of the nervous system that transmits information to other cells.

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Synapse

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Junction between two neurons that allows transmission of messages from one to the other.

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Neurotransmitter

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Chemical substance through which one neuron sends a message to another.

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Cortex

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Upper part of the brain; site of complex, conscious thinking processes.

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Synaptogenesis

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Universal process in early brain development in which many new synapses spontaneously appear.

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Synaptic Pruning

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Universal process in brain development in which many previously formed synapses wither away.

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Myelination

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Growth of a fatty shealth (myelin) around the axons of neurons, enabling faster transmission of messages.

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Constructivisim

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Theoretical perspective proposing that learners construct, rather than absorb, a body of knowledge from their experiences.

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Scheme

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Organized group of similar actions or thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment.

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Assimilation

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Process of dealing with a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme.

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Accommodation

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Process of dealing with a new event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one.

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Equilibrium

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State of being able to address new events with existing schemes.

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Disequilibrium

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State of being unable to address new events with existing schemes; typically accompanied by some mental discomfort.

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Equilibration

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Movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to equilibrium, a process that promotes development of more complex thought and understandings.

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Preoperational Stage

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Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, in which children can think about objects and events beyond their immediate view but do not yet reason in logical, adultlike ways.

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Preoperational Egocentrism

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Inability of children in Piaget's properational stage to view situations from another person's perspective.

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Egocentric Speech

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Act of speaking without taking the perspective and knowledge of the listener into account.

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Conservation

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Realization that if nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of altertions in shape or arrangement.

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Concrete Operations Stage

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Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, in which adultlike logic appears but is limited to concrete reality.

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Deductive Reasoning

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Process of drawing a logical inference about something that must be true, given other information that has already been presented as true.

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Formal Operations Stage

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Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development, in which logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as to concrete objects.

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Formal Operational Egocentrism

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Inability of adolescents in Piaget's formal operations stage to separate their own abstract logic from the perspectives of others and from practical considerations.

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Sociocultural Perspective

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Theoretical perspective emphasizing the importance of society and culture in promoting cognitive development.

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Cognitive Tool

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Concept, symbol, strategy, procedure, or other culturally constructed mechanism that helps people think about and respond to situations more effectively.

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Self-talk

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Process of talking to oneself as a way of guiding oneself through a task

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Inner Speech

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Process of "talking" to and guiding oneself mentally rather than aloud.

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Internalization

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Process through which a learner gradually incorporates socially based activities into his or her interanal cognitive processes.

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Actual Developmental Level

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Upper limit of tasks that a learner can successfully perform independently.

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

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Range of tasks that a learner can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.

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Mediated Learning Experience

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Discussion between an adult and a child in which the adult helps the child make sense of an event they have mutually experienced.

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Scaffolding

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Support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a task within his or her zone of proximal development.

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Guided Participation

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A child's performance, with guidance and support, of an activity in the adult world.

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Apprenticeship

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Mentorship in which a novice works intensively with an expert to learn how to perform complex new skills.

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Cognitive Apprenticeship

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Mentorship in which a teacher and a student work together on a challenging task and the teacher give guidance in how to thing about the task.

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Semantics

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Meanings of words and word combinations.

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Syntax

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Set of rules that one uses, often unconsciously, to put words together into sentences.

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Pragmatics

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Knowledge about culture-specific social conventions guiding verbal interactions.

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Metalinguistic Awareness

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Ability to think about the nature of language itself.

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Phonological Awareness

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Ability to hear the distinct sounds that comprise spoken words.

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Immersion

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Second-language instruction in which students hear and speak that language almost exclusively in the classroom.

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Bilingual Education

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Second-language instrction in which students are instructed in academic subject areas in their native language while simultaneously being taught to speak and write in the second language.

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Personal Development

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Development, with age of distinctive behavioral styles and increasingly complex self-understanding.

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Social Development

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Development, with age, of increasingly sophisticated understandings of other people and of society as a whole, as well as increasingly effective interpersonal skills and more interalized standards for behavior.

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Personality

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Characteristic ways in which an individual behaves in a wide range of circumstances.

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Temperament

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Genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one's physical and social environment.

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Attachment

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Strong, affectionate bond formed between a child and a caregiver.

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Parenting Style

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General pattern of behavior that a parent uses in rearing his or her children.

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Authoritative Parenting

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Parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making.

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Child maltreatment

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Consistent neglect or abuse of a child that jeopardizes the child's physical and psychological well-being.

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Socialization

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Process of molding a child's behavior and beliefs to be appropriate for his or her cultural group.

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Culture Shock

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Sense of confusion when a student encounters a culture with behavioral expectations very different from those previously learned.

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Sense of Self

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Perceptions, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about oneself as a person; includes self-concept and self-esteem.

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Ethnic Identity

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Awareness of one's membership in a particular ethnic or cultural group and willingness to adopt behaviors characteristic of the group.

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Imaginary Audience

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Belief that one is the center of attention in any social situation.

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Personal Fable

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Belief that one is completely unlike anyone else and so cannot be understood by others.

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Identity

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Self-constructed definition of who one is and what things are important in life.

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Peer Pressure

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Phenomenon whereby age-mates strongly encourage some behaviors and discourage others.

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Self-Socializtion

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Self-motivated tendency to conform to what one believes are other peoople's expectations for behavior.

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Clique

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Moderately stable friendship group of perhaps three to ten members.

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Crowd

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Large, loose-knit social group that shares common interest and attitudes.

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Subculture

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Group that resists the ways of the dominant culture and adopts its own norms for behavior.

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Gang

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Cohesive social group characterized by initiation rites, distinctive colors and symbols, territorial orientation, and feuds with rival groups.

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Popular Student

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Student whom many peers like and perceive to be kind and trusstworthy.

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Rejected Student

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Student whom many peers identify as being an undesirable social partner.

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Neglected Student

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Student about whom most peers have no strong feelings, either positive or negative.

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Social Cognition

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Process of thinking about how other people are likely to think, act, and react.

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Perspective taking

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Ability to look at a situation from someone elsee's viewpoint.

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Theory of Mind

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General understanding of one's own and other people's mental and psychological states (thoughts, feelings, etc.).

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Recursive Thinking

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Thinking about what other people may be thinking about oneself, possibly through multiple iterations.

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Social Information Processing

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Mental processes involved in understanding and responding to social events.

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Aggressive Behavior

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Action intentionally taken to hurt another either physically or psychologically.

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Physical Aggression

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Action that can potential cause bodily injury.

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Relational Aggression

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Action that can adversely affect interpersonal relationships.

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Proactive Aggression

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Deliberate aggression against another as a means of obtaining a desired goal.

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Reactive Aggression

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Aggressive response to frustration or provocation.

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Bully

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Child or adolescent who frequently threatens, harasses, or causes injury to particular peers.

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Hostile Attributional Bias

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Tendency to interpret others' behaviors as reflecting hostile or aggressive intentions.

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Prosocial Behavior

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Behavior directed toward promoting the well-being of another.

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Morality

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One's general standards about right and wrong behavior.

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Moral Transgression

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Action that causes harm or infringes on the needs or rights of others.

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Conventional Transgression

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Action that violates a culture's general expectations regarding socially appropriate behavior.

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Guilt

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Feeling of discomfort at having caused someone else pain or distress.

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Shame

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Feeling of embarrassment or humiliation after failing to meet standards for moral behavior that adults have set.

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Empathy

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Experience of sharing the same feelings as someone in unfortunate circumstances.

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Sympathy

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Feeling of sorrow for another person's distress, accompanied by concern for the person's well-being.

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Moral Dilemma

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Situation in which tow or more people's rights or needs may be at odds and the morally correct action is not clear-cut.

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Preconventional Morality

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Lack of internalized standards about right and wrong; decision making based solely on what is best for oneself.

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Conventional Morality

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Uncritical acceptance of society's conventions regarding right and wrong.

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Postconventional Morality

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Thinking in accordance with self-developed, abstract principles regarding right and wrong.

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Induction

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Explanation of why a certain behavior is unacceptable, often with a focus on the pain or distress that someone has caused another.

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Service Learning

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Activity that promotes learning and development through contributing to the betterment of others and the community at large.