Ecology Exam 2 Wheeler

Front 1

2 groups of reproductive isolation mechanisms?

Back 1

Pre-zygotic (prevents mating)
Post Zygotic (prevents fitness, hybrids)

Front 2

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Geographical

Back 2

Pre-zygotic

Different microhabitats

Ex. some fridilaries prefer serpentine soil and some are never found on serpentine soil.

Front 3

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Host specificity

Back 3

Pre-zygotic

parasites speciate with host.

eg. Host shifting in moths, speciation in gophers leads to different species of gopher fleas.

Front 4

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Temporal

Back 4

Pre-zygotic

Nocturnal vs diurnal, seasons, timing to produce pheromones, etc.

eg. Plants open at certain times of year. Corals mate en masse on a certain night each year.

Front 5

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Behavioral

Back 5

Pre-zygotic

Courtship, mating calls, etc

eg. birds

Front 6

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Mechanical

Back 6

Pre-zygotic

genitalia

eg. insects...some may look alike but have unique genitals like lock & key.

Front 7

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Display

Back 7

Pre-zygotic

elaborate colors and marking often coeveolved with behavioral isolating mechanisms

eg. dewlaps on lizards, peacocks tails

Front 8

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Gametic

Back 8

Pre-zygotic

incompatible gametes

eg. common in plants and broadcast fertilizers such as corals.

Front 9

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Hybrid Inviability

Back 9

Post zygotic

hybrid dies during development, never born

Front 10

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Hybrid Sterility

Back 10

Post zygotic

Hybrid robust but sterile

eg: mules

Front 11

What is a common route to speciation for parasites?

Back 11

host shift
(sphinx moths' parasitic larvae ...lead to 111 species of sphynx moth in North America!)

Front 12

common species of large biomass or numbers in a community?

Back 12

dominant species

Front 13

In Simpson's diversity index:
A perfectly homogeneous population would have a diversity index score of____.
A perfectly heterogeneous population would have a diversity index score of 1 (assuming infinite categories with equal representation in each category)

Back 13

homogeneous: 0
heterogeneous: 1

Front 14

statistical tests that do not require a normal or random pattern of distribution but can be carried out on qualitative or ranked information

Back 14

nonparametric statistics

Front 15

statistical test that require quantitative data or observations based on a normal or random pattern of distribution.

Back 15

parametric statistics

Front 16

The change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling.
*The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents, and chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces.

Back 16

genetic drift

(evolution due to chance rather than pressures)

Front 17

the theoretical principle for if both allele and genotype frequencies (proportions) in a population were to remain constant—that is, they are in equilibrium from generation to generation.

Back 17

Hardy–Weinberg principle

(impossible in nature)

Front 18

factors which make the Hardy–Weinberg principle impossible in nature?

Back 18

1.no mutation
2. No gene flow (no immigration/emigration)
3. mating is random (as in panmixis)
4. No genetic drift
5. No selection (natural or sexual)

Front 19

example of pre zygotic isolating mechanism?

Back 19

behavioral (mating preference)
geographical \incompatible gametes

Front 20

example of post-zygotic isolating mechanisms?

Back 20

problems with hybrids...inviability, sterility, weakness

Front 21

the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages.

Back 21

convergent evolution

Front 22

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: Describe and tell if it is pre or post zygotic.

Hybrid weakness

Back 22

Post zygotic

Hybrid has low fitness as adult

Front 23

What is r (coefficient of relatedness) for parent and child?

Back 23

0.5

Front 24

What is r (coefficient of relatedness) for grandparent and grandchild?

Back 24

0.25

Front 25

What is r (coefficient of relatedness) for cousins?

Back 25

0.125

Front 26

What is r (coefficient of relatedness) for siblings? (avg)

Back 26

0.5

Front 27

What is r (coefficient of relatedness) for parent and child in parthenogenic reproduction?

Back 27

1.

Front 28

Explain Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium

Back 28

the theoretical principle for if both allele and genotype frequencies (proportions) in a population were to remain constant—that is, they are in equilibrium from generation to generation.

Rare/impossible in nature, deviations from equilibrium imply evolution

Front 29

In what 2 ways can too much sex be counterproductive?

Back 29

1. Many offspring genetically inferior

2. outbreeding depression can occur

Front 30

What is outbreeding depression

Back 30

a breakdown in LOCAL ADAPTATIONS due to too much sex.

Causes homogeneity.

Front 31

What is the purpose of a common garden experiment?

Back 31

seeds from different habitats are put in a "common garden" to see how they respond. If there is an X factor in a species, this can determine if it is a HABITAT effect or an actual GENETIC variation.

Front 32

Summarize the "Lottery Hypothesis"

Back 32

1 of the theories that accounts for the evolution of sexual reproduction:
IMPROVE or die

Front 33

Summarize the "DNA repair Hypothesis"

Back 33

1 of the theories that accounts for the evolution of sexual reproduction:
Repair DNA damage or die

Front 34

Summarize the "Contagion Hypothesis"

Back 34

1 of the theories that accounts for the evolution of sexual reproduction:
Conform or die

Front 35

Summarize "Muller's Ratchet"

Back 35

1 of the theories that accounts for the evolution of sexual reproduction:
Purge mutations or die

Front 36

Summarize the "Red Queen Hypothesis"

Back 36

1 of the theories that accounts for the evolution of sexual reproduction:
Recombine or die: i.e. be flexible as a population or die...a population can keep one step ahead. IF you stop evolving you're dead, because predators, competitiors and pathogens will figure out how to beat you.

Front 37

Phenotypic plasticity?

Back 37

adjustment of an organism's phenotype in response to changes in the environment.
eg. common in plants.

Front 38

define population

Back 38

all of the individuals of a species that live in the same place at the same time

Front 39

What are the collective populations of a species(all living individuals of all populations (including seed bank) that are spatially separated but interact on some level.

Back 39

Metapopulation

Front 40

genetic mutation occur in 1 in _____ gametes

Back 40

a MILLION

only significant over time!

Front 41

What are the 2 types of genetic mutations?

Back 41

Point mutations
and
changes in gene position

Front 42

What are the 3 types of point mutations?

Back 42

Base substituation, insertion or deletion

These can affect function or shape of protein produced.

Front 43

What are 2 ways a gene can be mutated because of changes in gene position.

Back 43

transpositions (eg. A-C-B) and chromosomal rearrangement (gene has different location in chromosome)

Front 44

What is "slipped mispairing"?

Back 44

a loop of DNA is missed during replication resulting in a shorter gene.

Front 45

How does inversion occur in gametes?

Back 45

The orientation of part of the chromosome becomes reversed, so the genetic code in one gamete is reduced, but the other has more genes.

Front 46

Chromosomal mutations: translocation?

Back 46

a segment of one chromosome becomes a part of another chromosome.

Front 47

Chromosomal mutations:
aneuploidy?

Back 47

entire chromosomes are either lost or gained

Front 48

Chromosomal mutations:
polyploidy

Back 48

entire sets of chromosomes are added (duplicated)
e.i. triploid, hexapoid, etc.

Front 49

T/F?
Point and chromosomal mutations can vary within an individual.

Back 49

True!

e.g. in very old trees, environmental cancers.
*RAMETS can propagate somatic (non germ) mutations asexually too and lead to germ line mutations!

Front 50

What are immigration and emigration?

Back 50

movement of genotypes into (im) or out of a population. Gene flow!

*has greatest affect on small populations.

Front 51

A panmictic population is called a ______.

Back 51

Deme

Front 52

How do we determine the effective population size (Ne)?

Back 52

Ne= (4 x Nm x Nf) / (Nm + Nf)

Can be much smaller than actual N!

Front 53

Example of Panmixis?

Back 53

Eels all migrate to the Sargasso Sea to mate

Some plants / pollen.

Front 54

Rate of loss of genetic diversity due to genetic drift (in terms of N)?

Back 54

1/2 N lost per generation where N = population size

*more pronounced in smaller populations!

Front 55

Genetic bottleneck

Back 55

When a population contracts to a significantly smaller size over a short period of time due to some random environmental event.

Significance: Reduced genetic variation.
Some genes completely lost, especially rare genes!

Front 56

What is the founder effect?

Back 56

When genetic drift ACCELERATES evolutionary change and speciation.
Sets the stage for natural selection.

Front 57

what is the 50/500 rule?

Back 57

Ne >50:
minimized risks of imbreeding.

Ne > 500:
prevent genetic drift and allow for future adaptations to change.

Front 58

Under what conditions will Ne equal N (actual)?

Back 58

1. M=F
2. all individuals equally likely to produce offspring
3. offspring numbers produced is no more than by chance
4. random mating
5. N of breeding individuals is constant.

Front 59

How to calculate Ne if there's variation of N from generation to generation?

Back 59

Ne= ( # of generations) /
(1/ N1 + 1/N2 + 1/N3, etc.)

Front 60

What are the 3 types of Natural selection?

Back 60

Disruptive (bell curve forms 2 peaks)
(diversifying)

Directional (bell curve shifts R or L)

Stabilizing (bell curve narrows, favors mid-range)

Front 61

What are the 2 types of selection that may sometimes seem at odds with each other??

Back 61

Natural (utilitarian) and sexual (seemingly extravagant, but an "honest indicator" of fitness)

The large body size and mane of a lion can serve both purposes. Sexy, but also helpful in protecting cubs from hyenas. Mane protects throat.

Front 62

Sexual dimorphism: Why dwarfed males?

Back 62

They serve as genetic material donors (sperm donors).
sometimes become parasitic on female in exchange, sometimes are eaten be female.

Front 63

What type of natural selection is demonstrated by the Lake Tanganyika Cichlids?

Back 63

(extensive) DISRUPTIVE (result: adaptive radiation)

Front 64

The evolution of large size in horses is an example of what kind of Natural selection?

Back 64

Directional

Front 65

Birthweight in humans is a classic example of what type of natural selection?

Back 65

Stabilizing

Front 66

What is a breed really?

Back 66

An artificial genetic neighborhood.

Front 67

Examples of artificial selection?

Back 67

dogs
horses
wheat
corn
koi (ornamental carp)
chickens
ETC

Tuskless elephants
Rams with small horns

Front 68

When many subspecies are genetically stabilized lineages (parapatric populations) that are maintained by “nature” but only opposite "populations" are actually reproductively incompatible.

Reproductive isolation is incomplete – there is geneflow (intergradation) between adjacent subspecies.

Back 68

Ring species.
(speciation in action)

Eg. Salamanders in California

Front 69

Half albino, half regular is called...

Back 69

piebald

Front 70

Example of a reverted feral domestic dog?

Back 70

Australian dingo

*Unlike the Asiatic Dhole or the African wild dog that evolved separately from the wolf!

Front 71

For continuous data use a _______test.

Back 71

parametric

eg. heights, weights, DBH
*parametric means symmetrical around the mean

Front 72

For discontinuous data use a _______test.

Back 72

nonparametric

eg. counts, as in frequency or importance value, richness, -/+

Front 73

Normal disribution is ____shaped.

Back 73

Bell.

Front 74

skewness: What kind of skewness is a tail to the right?

Back 74

positive skew
(or right skew)

Front 75

skewness: What kind of skewness is a (comparatively) shallow curve?

Back 75

Platykurtic

Front 76

What kind of kurtosis is a distribution with a (relatively) tight distribution (thin and high bell curve)

Back 76

leptokurtic

Front 77

The measure of "peakedness" that has to do with HOV (Homogeneity of Variances)

Back 77

Kurtosis

Front 78

If data does not follow a normal curve, what kind of test should you use?

Back 78

nonparametric (even if you data is continuous! It must follow a normal curve to use a parametric test!)

Front 79

Data that have a different spread around the mean have ______of variance.

Back 79

heterogeneity
Versus our standard measure of homogeneity of variance (HOV)

Front 80

When 2 groups of data have a small variance in the distribution around the mean we call it a ________.

Back 80

nonsignificant subset

Front 81

4 evidences of past natural selection

Back 81

1 vestigial organs and structure
2 evolutionary anachronisms
3 phylogenetics
4 convergent evolution

Front 82

examples of vestigial organs

Back 82

tiny shells on some slugs
leg stubs on some snakes (also some Australian lizards in the process of losing legs!)
pelvis & leg bone stubs in baleen whales

Front 83

examples of evolutionary anachronisms (inconsistencies in arrangement)?

Back 83

Avocados & osage oranges: fruits drop and rot, dispersing coevolved animal is extinct.

These fruits are therefor "outdated."

Front 84

Example of phylogenetic evidences of past evolution?

Back 84

cryptic biodiversity found among giraffes using micro-satellites (DNA markers).

There are at least 6 species of giraffes!

Front 85

What are examples of convergent body plans?

Back 85

Marsupial and placental...
moles
anteaters
mice
climbers
flying squirrel/flying phalanger
cats (Tasmanian)
wolves (Tasmanian)

Front 86

examples of convergent evolution in plants and birds?

Back 86

other plant families are cactus-like

some birds resemble and feed like humming birds

Front 87

What is a type 1 error?

Back 87

an α error, or a "false positive": the error of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is actually true

Or accepting an alternative hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is actually false.

Front 88

What is a Type II error?

Back 88

a β error, or a "false negative": the error of failing to reject a null hypothesis when in fact we should have rejected it.

Front 89

Prediction of Ho (the null hypothesis)?

Back 89

The effect of X on Z will be
insignificant i.e. there will be no effect.

Front 90

Prediction of Ha (the alternative Hypothesis)?

Back 90

The effect of X on Z will be significant i.e. there will be an effect

Front 91

rejecting the alternative hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is actually true is a Type (I or II) error?

Back 91

2!

(Same as type II anyway)

Front 92

Explain significance in terms of P-values.

Back 92

If the sig. is 0.05 (5%) then that means that there is only a 5% chance that the null hypothesis is true. But there is a 95% chance that the alternative hypothesis is true! That is a lot more convincing!

Front 93

What is alpha level?

Back 93

An a priori (prior knowlegde) significance level chosen before the test is done.

Usually, in science, we choose an α-level of 0.05 (5%) because this is normally a good compromise between the risks of committing type I and type II errors.
P value > .05 , accept null, P value < .05 reject the null hypothesis

Lower the alpha value though if the stakes are high, because we would rather commit a type II error (false negative) than a Type I error (false positive).

Front 94

Alpha levels for pilot studies (such as ours)?

Back 94

.10

Front 95

Natural selection:
Individual selection vs. Group selection

Back 95

Indivifdual selection acts on individuals relative to other individuals.
Group selection is natural selection that act on the group relative to another group (eg, pack of wolves, subordinates help out because they are family)

Front 96

Why is kin selection Quasi-altruistic?

Back 96

siblings and cousins have high coefficients of relatedness, and so by helping out the an alpha male or cousin, they are actually helping pass on their own genetic material.

Front 97

Hypersocial /eusocial organisms (such as ants, bees and ugly naked mole rats) use what kind of selection?

Back 97

Kin selection

Front 98

Natural selection:
Individual selection vs. Group selection

Back 98

Indivifdual selection acts on individuals relative to other individuals.
Group selection is natural selection that act on the group relative to another group (eg, pack of wolves, subordinates help out because they are family)

Front 99

Why is kin selection Quasi-altruistic?

Back 99

siblings and cousins have high coefficients of relatedness, and so by helping out the an alpha male or cousin, they are actually helping pass on their own genetic material.

Front 100

Hypersocial /eusocial organisms (such as ants, bees and ugly naked mole rats) use what kind of selection?

Back 100

Kin selection

Front 101

what is heterosis?

Back 101

hybrid vigor or outbreeding enhancement, is the increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring. (opposite if inbreeding depression)
eg- mutts with better genetics

Front 102

what is an ecotype?

Back 102

a genetically distinct geographic variety, population or race within species
It is ecologically differentiated and locally adapted!

Front 103

to be passed on, mutations must occur in ______.

Back 103

GERM line cells

Front 104

3 phenomena that are especially pronounced in small populations?
(hardy weinberg assumptions that are broken)

Back 104

gene flow
nonrandom mating
&
genetic drift

Front 105

Example of nonrandom mating?

Back 105

alpha males, harems (animal polygamy)

Front 106

example of genetic drift?

Back 106

bottlenecking in panthers and cheetahs

skin grafts show that most cheetahs are very genetically similar!