Ecology Exam #2

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How do bacteria and archaea obtain ATP?

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through oxidizing organic compounds, oxidizing inorganic compounds, and photosynthesis

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How do bacteria and archaea obtain organic compounds?

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By synthesizing them starting with inorganic compounds such as CO2 and CH4, and from the surrounding environment

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How do bacteria and archaea photosynthesize?

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by using water as a source of electrons to create oxygen

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What is the defining chemical/structural difference between bacteria and archaea?

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Bacteria have a unique compound, peptidoglycan, in their cell walls. Archaea have unique phospholipids in their plasma membrane.

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Difference between eukaryotes and archaea/bacteria

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Eukaryotes have membrane enclosed organelles, DNA is enclosed by a nuclear envelope, no rotating flagella, is multicellular, no cell walls

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Difference between the way bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes process genetic info

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DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase, ribosomes are slightly different, so antibioitcs kill bacteria and not us

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How do some antibiotics work

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by binding to bacterial ribosomes and blocking protein synthesis

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Shapes of bacterial cells

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Rods, spheres, spirals

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Gram staining

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process of bacterial identification that stains some cell walls purple and some pink

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Gram positive

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thick layer of peptidoglycan

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Gram negative

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thin layer of peptidoglycan

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Types of variations in bacteria and archaea

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Size, shape, motility

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Phototrophs

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"light feeders" use light energy to excite electrons. ATP is produced by photophosphorylation

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Chemoorganotrphs

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oxidize organic molecules with high potential energy, such as sugars. ATP may be produced by cellular respiration with sugars serving as electron donors

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How do some antibiotics work

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by preventing formation of cross links between peptidoglycan strands

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endotoxins

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compononts of the outer membranes of gram negative bacteria--released from the membrane when a bacteria dies. Can cause fever, inflammation, changes in blood pressure

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How do bacteria/ archaea reproduce?

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through binary fission, produces 2 identical daughter cells

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Endospores

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A bacterial mechanism, forms endospore by replicating chromosome and surrounding it with a strong wall. They are resistant to heat and drying, can survive for centuries

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taxis

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movement toward or away from a stimulus

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Nitrogen cycling

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some bacteria can perform nitrogen fixation

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autotrophs

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organisms that manufacture their own building block compounds "self feeders"

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nitrogen fixation

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conversion of molecular nitrogen into NH4 which can be used by plants--highly endergonic redox reaction. Only found in certain bacteria and archaea

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nitrogen cycle

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Nitrate (NO2) is produced by bacteria as a by product of respiration, and is then used by other bacteria as an electron donor, it is oxidized (NO3-) then another turns it to (N2)

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Nitrogen fixating bateria

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many have a symbiotic relationship with plants, converting atomospheric nitrogen into NH4 to get energy and plants can use it

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mutualism

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both organisms involved benefit from the association

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Commensalism

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one organism benefits and there is no cost or benefit to the other

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parasitism

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One organism benefits at a cost to the other

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symbiotic relationships we need

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symbiotic relationships with bacteria are critical for our health. 10x more microbial cells than human cells.

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Example of need for bacteria in mice

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The capillaries in small intestines don't develop complete networks without bacteria

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Role of bacteria in human nutrient uptake

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fermentation of ploysaccharides by bacteria and archaea account for 10% of the calories we absorb

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other roles of bacteria

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production of neurotransmitters, signaling molecules affecting our digestive system, prevents excessive growth of harmful bacteria

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exotoxins

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toxic proteins secreted by bacteria, among most potent per weight of all toxic substances

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Bacterial use by humans

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Used for antibiotics, bioremediation,

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bioremediation

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use of organisms t eliminate pollutants. bacteria and archaea can be used to break down hydrophobic pollutants that don't decompose easily.

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uses of bioremediation

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Fertilizing contaminated sites to encourage growth of existing bacteria (with nitrogen) that degrade toxic compounds---ex after oil spills

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phylogenetic trees

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a graphical summary of the evolutionary history of a group of organisms

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Use of phylogenetic tree

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can indicate which groups of organismsare most closely related, can be used to infer which features evolved first and which evolved later

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Most common method of inferring phylogenetic trees

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cladistic approach

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cladistic approach

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based on the principle that relationships among species can be reconstructed by identifying shared derived characters/snyapomorphies

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synapomorphy

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a trait found in two or more taxa that is present in their most recent common ancestor but is missing in more distant ancestors---allow biologists to recognize monophyletic groups

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monophyletic group

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an evolutionary unit that includes an ancestral population and all of its descendants, but no others.

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parsimony

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the principle that the simplest possible explanation is preferred

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homoplasy

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when a feature found in two groups of organisms is similar, but not because both groups inherited it from a common ancestor

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Cause of homoplasy

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convergent evolution--occurs when natural selection favors similar solutions to the problems posed by a smilar way of making a living in different species

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homology

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occurs when traits are similar due to shared ancestry

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fossil record

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total collection of fossils that have been found throughout the world

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where are fossils found

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in sedimentary rocks

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how do fossils form

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from hard parts like teeth or bones or shells, some retain organic material

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limitation of fossil record

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very very few organisms leave fossils

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Precambrian

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first --low oxygen levels in oceans and atmosphere, photosynthesis originates (cyanobacteria)`

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Paleozoic

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2nd, land plants originate, amphibians and reptiles originate, ends with Permian mass extinction

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Mesozoic

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3rd, Dinosaurs originate, mammals originate, flowering plants originate, ends with Cretaceous mass extinction

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Cenozoic era

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to present, diversification of mammals, diversification of flowering plants

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Mass extinctions

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periods in which many species become extint over a short period of time

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2 major mass extinctions

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Permian, Cretaceous

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Permian mass extinction

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massive volcanic activity is cause, lots of carbon dioxide caused global warming , widespread wildfires, sulfuric acid, 95% of marine, 80% of land animals exitinct

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Cretaceous mass extinction

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extinction of 60-80% of species and dinosaurs--caused by asteriod collision with earth--thin layer of iridium all over world in rock , huge crater off coast of mexico

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Adaptive radiations

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When a single lineage rapidly produces many descendant species with a wide range of adaptive forms

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Why do adaptive radiations occur?

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ecological opportunity--new types of resources, or morpological innovation, a trait that allowed descendants to live in new areas/get new resouces/move in new ways

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What is ecology?

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the study of how organisms interact with eachother and their environment

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What does ecology address?

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the distribution and abundance of organisms

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What do we use ecology for?

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Answer questions like, impact of environmental change on ecosystems, where will disease causing organisms be present in the future, how common, etc

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what is a population

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a group of individuals of the same species that lives in the same area at the same time

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Focus of population ecology

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on how the number and distribution of individuals in a population change over time

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Community

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consists of populations of different species that interact with each other within a particular area

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Focus of community ecology

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the nature of the interactions between species and the consequences of those interactions

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What is an ecosystem

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all organisms in a particular region along with nonliving components--air, water, nonliving parts of soil

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Focus of ecosystem ecology

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study how nutrients and energy move among organisms and through the surrounding atmosphere and soil or water

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focus of organismal ecology

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explore the morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations that allow individuals to live in a particular area--ex, studying an invasive species

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range

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geographic distribution

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abiotic factors

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organisms tend to be adapted to a limited set of physical conditions--to a particular temperature, salinty, water depth, moisture on land etc

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biotic factors

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the ability of a species to live in an area is limited by interactions with other organisms

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What do eukaryotes include

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Fungi, land plants, animals, protists

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Protist

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refers to all eukaryotes that are not land plants, fungi, or animals.

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Paraphyletic group

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represent some but not all of the descendants of a single common ancestor.

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What do protists include

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very diverse, not a monophyletic group--no synapomorphies, many unicellular organisms, some multicellular, many live in wet environments

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Endosymbiosis theory

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proposes that mitochondria and plastids began as bacteria living inside early eukaryotic cells

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Endosymbiosis theory explained

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1. Eukaryotic cell engulfs and surrounds bacterium, bacterium lives inside, eukaryote provides bacterium with protection, bacterium supplies eukaryote with ATP--early mitochondria or photosynthetic plastids

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How do protists feed

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phagocytosis--- ingesting packets of food, absorbing organic molecules directly from environment, or by performing photosynthesis

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Phagocytosis

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possible in protists that lack a cell wall, gives organism flexibility to surround and swallow prey with psuedopodia---this was prerequisite for endosymbiosis with bacteria

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Absorptive feeding

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occurs when nutrients are taken up directly from the environment, across the plasma membrane, usually through transport proteins--some are decomposers

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decomposers

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protists that feed on dead organic matter/detrius.

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Morphology of protists

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most have cilia or flagella--cillia are shorter, move like oars vs flagella, moves like a ribbon

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Photosynthetic protists

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Different ones have different photosynthetic pigments, allowing them to use different wavelengths of light.

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amoeboid motion

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a sliding movement observed in some protists using flagella or cilia--flagella are long and few in number, cilia are short and numerous

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Reproduction of protists

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some asexual--mitosis, some sexual, meiosis and syngamy

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How long is life cycle of protist

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Varies based on haploid stage--one of each type of chromosome

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syngamy

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Process of combining two gametes

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Haploid vs diploid

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Haploid have just one of each type of chromosome, diploid--2, when meiosis occurs in diploid, forms 2 haploid cells

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Variables in life cycle of protist

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Whether meiosis occurs, whether asexual reproduction occurs, whether haploid or diploid stage is longer and more prominent

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Life cycle dominated by haploid cells

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Fertilization to zygote, meiosis to haploid, growth to mature cell, mitosis to gamete, gamete pairs fuse in fertilization

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Life cycle dominated by diploid cells

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Fertilization, growth to zygote then mature cell, mitosis (asexual reproduction) to form 4 daughter cells, then meiosis of the smaller cells to form sperm and egg, which fertilze, the bigger ones continue mitosis

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Habitats of protists

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most live in habitats with some water--moist terrestrial, lakes, oceans, inside host organisms

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gametophyte

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multicellular haploid form of a protist--specialized cells in this individual produce gametes by mitosis and cell division

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Alternation of generations

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alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid forms

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sporophyte

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multicellular diploid stage--has specialized cells that undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells called spores

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spore

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a single haploid cell that divides mitotically to form a multicellular, haploid gametophyte

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Gamete

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a single haploid cell, role is to fuse with another gamete to form a zygote

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Algae

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photosynthetic protists, do not form a monophyletic group

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Brown algae

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marine, the largest most complex algae, all brown algae are multicellular

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Seaweed

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large marine algae--brown, red, and green algae include seaweeds --can be subject to strong wave action and drying if above low tide mark

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Structural features of seaweed

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cell walls include cellulose and gel forming polysaccharides which provides structural support to withstand waves.

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Apicomplexans

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are all parasites of animals, named bc of infectious stage in life cycle the apex of cell contains organelles for penetrating host. Both sexual and asexual.

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Plasmodium

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goes between human and mosquito host. Sexual reproductino in mosquito, asexual in human. Lives in mosquito, infects and kills liver and blood cells in humans

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Life cycle of plasmodium

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In mosquito--fertilization, meisosis, growth, mosquito bites human, enters human, mitosis occurs in liver and blood cells, prodices gametes, mosquito bites and gets gametes, fertilization

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Dinoflagellates structure

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skeleton made up of internal plates of cellulose. Cells have fixed shape, many are photosynthetic--important component of phytoplankton.

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What do dinoflagellates do

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Cause red tides when populations are high, some species produce neurotoxins that kill fish, toxins accumulate in tissues of clams, mussels, oysters, cause illness in those that eat them.

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Dinoflagellates and coral

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some photosynthetic species live as symbionts of coral--provide coral with energy rich organic compounds like lipids and glucose, coral provides CO2 and nitrogenous wastes

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Oomycetes

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water molds, made up of hyphae--fine branching filaments. Most are decomposers

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Difference between oomycetes and fungi

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cell walls of oomycetes are made of cellulose, cell walls of fungi are made of chitin

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Potatoe oomycetes

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terrestrial species that are parasites of plants, one species attacks potatoes, produces sporesCe

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Cellular slime molds

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Dictyostelium, sexual and asexual reproduction. --somewhere between single celled and multicellular. Lives in soil, eats bacteria. When food is scarce, aggregate.

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Green algae

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Closest relatives of land plants, most live in fresh water/marine environments

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Shared feature of green algae and land plants

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material called sporopollenin-most durable known organic material --in algae, forms a layer around zygotes, protects them from drying in case water dries out. also makes up walls of plant spores and pollen

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Adaptations to avoid drying out in land plants

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cuticle: waxy layer coating epidermis of above ground parts. Keeps CO2 from reaching leaf cells, so plants have stomata

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Adaptaions of non seed plants to allow reproduction in dry environments

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spores: single, haploid, grow to multicellular haploid stage, walls of plant spores contain sporopollenin, cells of diploid stage undergo meiosis to produce spores

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Non vascular plants

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first plants to live on land: mosses. Multicellular haploid stage is dominant stage of life cycle, most lack vascular tissues , so haploid stage tissue is only a few cells thick, allows minerals, water to reach all cells

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seedless vascular plants

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seedless vascular plants include ferns, diploid stage is dominant stage of life cycle

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reproduction of seedless vascular plants

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spores are produced by sporangia, spores develop to gametophyte, which contains sperm and eggs, sperm swims to egg, fertilization, sporphyte develops on gametophyte, grows to mature sporophyte

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Alternation of generations

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individuals represent either multicellular haploid stage (gametophyte) or multicellular diploid stage (sporophyte). Two phases are connected by types of reproductive cells--gametes and spores.

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Life cycle of seedless vascular plants

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plants we see are diploid stage, spores are produced underneath leaves, spores are main mean of dispersal , allow them to disperse widely

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Haploid vs diploid

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Haploid is gametes, diploid is spores

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Difference between seedless plants and seed plants

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Seed plants have no independent haploid stage, have seeds, and pollen

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Seed

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a diploid embryo along with a supply of nutrients inside a protective coat. Egg develops and is fertilized inside immature seed

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Function of seeds

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can survive harsh environments, can stay dormant for long periods of time, allows dispersal, ---same as spores in seedless

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Pollen

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Male spores develop into pollen grains, which contain male haploid cells. Pollen have protective coats of sporopollenin.

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Pollination

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transfer of pollen. Pollen lands near tissue containing immature seeds, extends a tube that delivers a sperm cell

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Gymnosperms

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include conifers, most are evergreens, adapted to dry conditions. Leaves have thick cuticles, stomata are in pits, which reduces water lossL

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Life cycle of grymnosperm

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tree is diploid, separate male and female cones, trees have both. Small pollen cones make haploid pollen grains which deliver sperm cells.

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Seeds of gymnosperm

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Seeds develop on surface of specialized leaves: pine cones are clusters of seed bearing structrues

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Angiosperm

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Only plants that produce flowers and fruit, about 250000 known species.

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Purpose of flowers

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to get insects/animals to carry pollen from one plant to another

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Ovary in flower

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structure at base of flower enclosing immature seeds (ovules)

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Fruit

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the mature ovary following pollination--after pollination, ovary wall gets thicker-flesh of fruit

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Function of fruit

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protect seeds for dispersal--can be eaten by animals, passed through digestive system , deposited somewhere else (some are carreid by wind--dandelions or attached to animals--burrs)

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Coevolution

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when two species interact and each affects the evolution of the other

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Coevolution in angiospersm

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Many rely on animals/insects for pollination and or seed dispersal

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Example of coevolution in angiosperm

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Pollination of flowers by bees; bees can't see red; flowers are brightly colored but not red; landing platforms on flower, markings showing position of nectar in flower, markings visisble in UV light, which bees see, some look like female bees

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Coevolution in pollinators

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Bats have long brush like tongues for feeding from flowers

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population growth equation

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growth rate (r) = birth rate (b) - death rate (d)

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Change in population equation

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change in N / change in t = rN where N is population size and t is time

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exponential population growth

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curve gets steeper (growth gets faster) with time because pop size N increases (higher levels of Rmax =higher N

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carrying capacity

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K, maximum population size a habitat can support

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What determines carrying capacity

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(K) --birth rate, death rate or both can be density dependent ---birth rate falls or death rate rises with increased pop density

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population dynamics

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changes in pop over time

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metapopulation

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a set of small populations that are spatially separated but close enough for individuals to migrate between populations--bc of human activity, becoming more common

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effects of human population growth

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non renewable resources like oil are used up more quickly, smaller share of land, water, for each person, production of more pollutants

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Estimated future pop growth

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pop to increase by 1 billion in next 15 years

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age structure

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proportion of individulas of each age

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factors affecting growth

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age structure--if high proportion of young people, pop growth will be higher

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closest relatives of animals

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choanoflagellates (protists), fungi

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heterotrophic

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most obtain organic molecules through ingestion --eating other organisms

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shared features of animals

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Extracellular matrix--material found between animal cell, desmosomes -- cell-cell attachments made up of proteins, blastula stage, swimming larvae

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desmosomes

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cell to ceel attachments made up of proteins, link cells together and are also connected to cytoskeleton

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blastula stage

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early animal development--cleavage (miotic cell division) forms blastula --hollow ball of cells during development

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swimming larva

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present in many animal phyla, including sponges. Small ,uses cilia to swim. after certain amount of time , go through metamorphasis

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Gastrulation

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after blastla is formed, some cells go inside to form endoderm, ecto derm, mesoderm

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sponges

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marine, some live in freshwater, no true tissues, ECM, desmosomes , pores throughout body, collar cells line internal chambers, have flagella that pull water through pores for filter feeding, digestion/transport is done by individual cells. sexual and asexual

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cnidaria

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includes sea anenomes, corals, jellyfish, hydras--marine ,few live in fresh water, have a gut/nervous system

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polyp

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sessile/attached stage

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medusa

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(jellyfish) floating stage

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2 life stages of cnidaria

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polyp, medusa

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life cycle of cnidaria

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grown polyp, produces reproductive poly, buds, off through mitosis, forms medusa, produces sperm/egg, fertilizes, forms zygote, then swimming larva, forms immature polyp---some stay at polyp stage

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Organization of cnidaria

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made up of ecto and endo derm, separated by ECM, no mesoderm. other layers have contracile fibers, muscular movements are possible. At one end is mouth surroudned by tentacles with stinging cells, which opens to gastric cavity. Nerve net

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cnindocytes

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cnidaria catch food in cnindocytes in tentacles. Cells containing capsules that function in adhesion to prey or in stinging--capsule filled with thread

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Medusa stage

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mouth faces down, swims by contraction of body, thick ECM made of mostly seawater between 2 laters

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Corals

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colonies of polyps, connected at the base by tubes--so food is shared. Corals secrete calcium carbonate skeletons

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Corals--symbiotic

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many have a symbiotic relationship with photosynthetic organism living in endoderm, often dinoflagellates. co

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coral bleaching

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when corals expel symbionts in response to high temps or stress. can take up new symbionts if stress is removed.

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Phylum Ctenophora

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comb jellies, all species are marine, major part of plankton biomass. --radially symmetrical , nerve net, ecto and endoderm, swim using 8 combs made of long cilia--largest animals to use cilia