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138 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Ecosystem
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The biotic community & its abiotic enviro functioning as a system
{2 components= 1)living--biotic 2)physical--abiotic} |
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Earth's Interception of Solar Radiation
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Earth intercepts solar energy in *shortway radiation* (from hot masses=sun).
energy passes through atmosphere, then hits surface and is emitted back as *longwave radiation* (from cooler masses=earth). Longer wavelengths can't pass through atmosphere as easily so some is returned to Earth. ==The Greenhouse Effect== ...crucial to maintaining surface temp of earth... |
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Temp Gradiant from Equator to Poles
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the amount of solar radiation intercepted decreased with latitude away from equator.
*due to earth's tilt* at higher latitudes radiation hits surface at steeper angle and has to travel through a deeper layer of air &Reason for the Seasons = Earth's Tilt (causes parts of earth to receive seasonal differences in solar radiation) |
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Air Temperature & Altitude
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Air temperature decreases w/ altitude bc:
1)Decline in warming effect @ surface -when longwave radiation is emitted from surface it heats air above it... as air continues to rise decreasing pressure causes it to expand & cool {*Adiabatic Cooling*} 2)increase altitude=decrease air density=fewer collisions of air molecules=less heat ***Increase in altitude = decrease in air pressure/atmospheric pressure (due to less air above us) AND decrease in air density*** |
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Adiabatic Cooling
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Decrease in air temperature through expansion---not heat loss
*responsible for decrease in temp w/altitude* *ALSO moist air cools slower than dry air |
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Atmospheric Circulation
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air=constant state of movement
due to vertical movements of air patterns & earth's rotation air/H20 currents deflected rt in N Hemisphere & currents deflected lft in S Hemisphere *3 Cells in each hemisphere |
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Vertical movements of air
(imaginary non-rotating earth) |
-Equatorial region receives most solar radiation
-warm air rises bc its less dense than cooler air -warm air from equator rises =low pressure at surface =air rising beneath it forces air mass to spread N & S =as move toward poles air cools & sinks ==raises surface pressure ====that heavier air then moves back toward equator |
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Patterns in Ocean Currents
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caused by
1)global pattern of wind 2)Coriolis Effet *act like wind until hit continents (Gyres go west (due2wind) til hit continents then split to N & S then cool, move east(due2wind), hit continents, then flow back to equator) |
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Gyres
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the 2 circular water motions that dominate each ocean
-N Hemisphere = clockwise -S Hemisphere = counter clockwise |
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Atmospheric Moisture
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expressed in relative humidity (percent of water in the air of the max amt of water the air could hold @ that temp)
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Saturation Vapor Pressure
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Max amt of moisture the air can hold at a given temp
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Precipitation patterns determined by
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Wind,
Temp, Ocean Currents |
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Latent Heat
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Amount of energy released or absorbed during change in state (of matter)
-more ordered (liquid) to less ordered (gas) state =energy is absorbed -less ordered to more ordered =energy is released |
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Evaporation
v Condensation |
Evaporation= liquid to gas state
Condensation= water vapor to liquid state |
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Rate of Evaporation = Rate of Condensation
Means: |
The air is saturated
(when air & liquid h20 meet = molecules freely exchanged) |
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Pattern
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Non-random Spatial Distribution
*due to limits in distribution of organisms (no limits = no patterns) |
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Population
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group of individuals of the same species in an area--Interbreeding
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Community
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all populations of different species living and interacting within an ecosystem
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Ecosystem
(in community terms) |
Communities + Physical Enviro = Ecosystems
*exchanges of materials & flow of energy (abiotic + biotic) -adjacent ecosystems interact |
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Landscape
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a "Patchwork" pattern of adjacent ecosystems
(ecosystems linked by H20 flow & movement of organisms) |
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Basic Unit of Ecology?
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The INDIVIDUAL
-responds to enviro -B & D = pop dynamics -interactions = communities -passes genes to next generations = nat. sel. |
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Why are there limits to distribution?
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bc limits to information, genectic know-how
(Life Organized with Information) |
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Autecology
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Ecology of Single Species Population
(like studying certain aspects of gerbils) ("species one at a time") *population ecology, psysiological ecology, life histories* |
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Synecology
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Ecology of plural species considered together
*wildlife ecology, communtiy ecology, landscape ecology, life zone ecology..* |
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Population Distribution described by 2 basic laws:
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1) Lieberg's Law of the Minimum
-how much will a bucket hold? 2)Shelford's Law of Tolerance -thought lieberg's was too simple--you can have too much of a good thing. (middle--optimum is better than min and max) |
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Shelford's laws of distribution
(law of tolerance) |
1)the range of a species is limited by changes in limiting factors (factors beyond limit tolerated by the species)
2)the distribution area (where species can live) is determined by the power of migration & their tolerance **they live there bc they can stand it & they can get there |
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Gradiant Analysis
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plot of
Species Distribution against a Spatial Vaiable (elevation, temp, moisture, nutrients) AKA: relative abundance of individuals of a species along enviro gradiants ---QUANTIFIED LIMITS--- **WHITTAKER** {shows communities are generalizations...not absolute} |
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Zonation v Succesion
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Zonation=spatial
-changes in community structure across landscape Succesion=Temporal(time) -changes in community structure through time |
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Primary Succession
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on Newly Exposed Surface (NO SOIL)
ex. st helens, glacier bay |
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Secondary Succession
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vegetation has been removed but SOIL REMAINS
(after disturbances) ex. post fire |
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Changes over succession?
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Species presence & Relative abundance
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150 year study of succesion?
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identify differences in space
which represent differences in time (old field succession- when was the field abandoned?) |
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Trends in Ecological Succesion
(from Early to Late) |
-food webs->more complex
-biodiversity->increases -specialization->narrows -nutrient cycling->tighter -stability->higher -photosynthetic/respiration (P/R Ratio)->lowers from >1 to ~1 |
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Ecological Succesion
definition |
change in composition of biotic community over "ecological time" (10-1000 yrs)
ex. abandoned field= weeds->herbs->shrubs *can be cyclical (fire-prone ecosystems) |
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Community Evolution
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development of regional biota over "evolutionary time" (1000-1000000 yrs)
ex. savannas replaced by grassland as rockies rise & rainshadow forms |
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Physiological time
v Ecological time v Evolutionary time |
SHORTEST TO LONGEST:
physiological ecological evolutionary |
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Why does ecological Succession occur?
2 competing (prob both right) theories |
1)FACILITATION MODEL
-early species (pioneers) change the conditions of a site to make it more habitable for later invading species 2)INHIBITION MODEL -early species resist invasion & remain until they're replaced by: Competition, Predation, Disturbance |
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FACILITATION MODEL
theory of ecological succession |
early species (pioneers) change the conditions of a site to make it more habitable for later invading species
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INHIBITION MODEL
theory of ecological succession |
early species resist invasion & remain until they're replaced by:
Competition, Predation, Disturbance |
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Natural Selection Requires (2)
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1)Variation among individuals
2)differences in survival and reproduction (fitness) |
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Fitness
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contribution individual makes to future generations
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Directional
Stabilizing Disruptive SELECTION |
DIRECTIONAL:
trait shifted to one extreme or the other DISRUPTIVE: Favors both extremes simultaniously STABILIZING: favors individuals near mean population |
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MENDEL
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1)alternate units control heritable traits
2)for each characteristic organism has 2 units 3)when 2 units are different the dominant is expressed & recessive is not (unit = gene/allele)-later |
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DNA's contained in
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Chromosomes
(which are oganized into subunits--GENES) |
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alternate forms of genes =
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alleles
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water cycle
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solar radiation provides energy for evaporation of water
1-Precipitation 2-interception (some water doesn't infiltrate into ground and evaporates back into air 3-filtration (leads to groundwater) 4-Evapotranspiration (sum of evaporating water from surface and from transpiration {the evaporation of water from leaves/plants} |
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Water's physical Properties
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1)polar
*H+ O- bonding* CAUSES a)hydrogen bonding b)high specific heat c)cohesion & surface tension d)buoyancy e)high solubility |
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Specific Heat of Water
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large quantities of heat energy required to change state of matter
bc of lattice arrangement of H & O water becomes denser til 4* C then decreases in density *Ice floats bc lattice structure has holes=not dense -insulates water below |
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Cohesion & Surface Tension
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Cohesion:
water molecules stick to eachother resisting breaking Surface Tension- water hits air=weaker attraction than water to water below |
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Viscosity of water
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due to cohesion (attraction of water molecules = harder to seperate)
viscosity of water is much greater than air -also due to fact that its more dense than air ----causes buoyancy |
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Buoyancy
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caused by viscosity
if body's weight in water is is less than water it displaces = upward force = buoyancy *since most aquatic animals have nuetral buoyancy they don't require structural material (skeletons) to hold themselves erect in water *ps. higher density of water means greater changes in pressure than in air |
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Water as a Solvent
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boundery between air and H20 experiences DIFFUSION (molecules move from high concentration to low concentration)
= net transfer of Oxygen &Carbon Dioxide |
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Solubility in water depends on
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1)temperature
-solubility decreases at temperature increases (solubility greater at lower temps) 2)pressure (solubility increases as pressure increases) 3)salinity (solubility decreases as salinity increases) *greater density and viscocity of water limit diffusion from air |
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Solubility of O2 and CO2 (carbon dioxide)
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-solubility of O2= low
-solubility of CO2= high -CO2 reacts w/H20 and produces carbonic acid --->result in more H+ --->more acidity (more H+ = more acidic) *alkaline = more OH- less H+ |
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Light & Water
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lower angle light hits = more reflected
light in water reduced by: -reflection -particles -water itself absorbs light |
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Water & Temperature
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*high heat capacity *resists change in temp
*high heat of vaporization *high heat of fusion (energy taken out to freeze -surface temperatures = reflect incoming/outgoing radiation -decline in solar radiation w/depth -most rapid decline = thermocline *thermocline seperates warm upper "epilimnion" and deeper colder denser "hypolimnion" --->ESTABLISHING PATTERNS OF ZONATION |
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Standing bodies of water Circulation in spring/fall
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temp & sunlight low
-surface water cools -becomes denser & sinks -warmer water goes to surface -it cools and sinks =vertical circulation ps. in winter warmest part is at bottom |
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Water as a Solvent (in general)
*solution w/H20 as solvent = acqueous solution |
-can dissolve more substances than any liquid
-nutrients and waste are dissolved and transported -solubility due to H-bonding (attract molecules carrying a charge) --->ex. sodium chloride (Na+) & (Cl-) are more attracted to water molecules than eachother.... so they dissasociate and dissolve (solubility of sodium chloride =HIGH) *when concentration reaches solute max excess amts are deposited as sediments |
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water distribution
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Oceans
Ice Goundwater Surfacewater Atmosphere Biosphere *highest to lowest* **Hydrosphere crucial to biosphere but biosphere trivial to hydrosphere |
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first law of ecology
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water flows downhill
--integrates ecosystems (connects landscapes) |
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Simplest measure of Community Structure
= Species Richness |
number of species w/i a community
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Spatial Patterns
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-species distributions/limits
-productivity (primary & secondary) -Biotic Communities |
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Time Patterns
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-individual position/movement
-population dynamics -ecological succession -community development (community evolution) |
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Mosaic
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patchwork or different types of land
(all in an ecological community) *product of boundaries defined by changes in structure of distinct patches |
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Patches
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-distinct LOCAL communities
-realatively homogeneous -differ from surroundings in structure and species comp -embedded in matrix -produced by variations in geology(rocks), topography(physical structure), soil, climate, human activity, natural events (fire, grazing) *crop fields, forests, ponds* |
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Landscape Ecology
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study of causes of formation of patches and boundaries (and the consequences of these spatial patterns--concerned w/size/shape of patches)
[the interactions depend on size and spatial arrangement] (think of ecosphere as hierarchy) *landscapes dynamic in space and time (change occurs) *complexity is key |
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Matrix
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group of many different patches
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Patches'
area, shape, & orientation determine |
-their suitability as habitats
-influence ecological processes (wind flow, seed dispersal, animal movement) |
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topography
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physical structure of a landscape
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Edges
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the perimeter of a patch
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Inherent Edges
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-abrupt change in physical conditions (topography, substrate, soil type, microclimate)BETWEEN COMMUNITIES (patches)
-long term natural features (like rock outcrops) -usually stable & Permanent |
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Induced Edges
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-resulting from natural disturbances (fires storms floods) & human activity (housing, farms)
-edges that are subject to successional changes over time |
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Borders
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where edge of one patch meets edge of another
(area of contact, seperation, transition between patches) |
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Wide Borders form transition zone called
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ECOTONE
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Edge Species
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species restricted exclusively to edge environments
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Edge Effect
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high species richness bc they can support species of adjoining communities & opportunistic species adapt to edges
influenced by -border area available -greater contrast between patches= greater diversity |
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Corridors
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strips of similar habitat
-connect seperate patches -usually of human origin -provide habitat -can act as filters/barriers -permit travel ways |
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Filter effect
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gaps in corridors allow some organisms to cross and restrict others
-can spread diseases between patches (can be roads) |
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Disturbance
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event that disrupts community structure & function
-create patterns & are influenced by patterns *Intensity= measured by proportion of total pop that disturbance kills *Scale= the spatial extent of impact relative to size of affected landscape *Frequency= mean # of disturbances in a time interval |
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Small Scale
Large Scale Severe DISTURBANCES |
SMALL SCALE:
-make gaps -creating patches of different comp. and stage LARGE SCALE: -favor opportunistic species -species like original pop eventually replace early species SEVERE disturbances: can replace a community altogether *too frequent disturbances can eliminate a species |
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"Shifting Mosaic"
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the patches of communities that define a landscape is always changing
-landscape is composed of patches each in different stages of development |
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Landscapes
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patchwork mosaics
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Biological Molecules
Polymers and their monomers |
*Carbohydrates-->Glucose
*Fats-->Fatty Acids & Glycerol *Proteins-->Amino Acids *Nucleic Acids-->Nucleotides |
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Dominant Species
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species predominating community
-based on # and size of individuals |
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Keystone SPecies
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have influence on community disproportionate to their #s
-removal causes changes in structure and significant loss of diversity |
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Basal Species
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feed on no other species but are fed upon by others
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Intermediate species
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feed on other species and are also prey of other species
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Top Predators
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prey on intermediate and basal species
and aren't fed on by other species |
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Zonation
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spatial change in community structure
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Guilds
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groups of species that exploit a common resource in a similar fashion
(ex. hummingbirds & other nectar feeding birds exploit flowering plants) |
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Functional Type
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group of species based on common response to environment, life history, or role in community
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2 views of community
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1)Organismic Concept of Communities
(clements) -community as unit - each species component of the whole -whenever a habitat repeats the same species occurs -species in association have similar distributional limits -common evolutionary history & similar tolerances 2)Individualistic/Continuum Concept (gleason) -relationship among species in a community are a result of their tolerances --NOT strong interactions or common evolutionary history |
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Ecology v
Environmental Management v Environmentalism |
ECOLOGY:
science of understanding our surroundings ENVIRO MANAGEMENT: how CAN we work the world ENVIRONMENTALISM: how SHOULD we work the world (lifestyle choices) |
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Modes of Evolution
(different time scales) |
Cultural
Organic Geophysical Cosmic Shortest to Longest |
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Origin of Life
Extraterrestrial Hypo |
"seeds" from space arrived on meteorites
|
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Origin of Life
Chemoautotrophic Hypo |
life from the deep
-from deep sea hydrothermal vents |
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Mechanism of Organic Evolution
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Natural Selection
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Darwin Observed (3)
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1)Variation
2)Overpopulation (more offspring produced than survive to reproduce) 3)Competition (struggle for resources in finite enviros) CONCLUSION: natural selection (2/3 ecology[overpop & competition], 1/3 genetics [variation]) |
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Darwin didn't understand
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-mutation
-mechanisms of genetics |
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Fundamental Forces of Nature:
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1)Gravitational
2)Weak 3)Electromagnetic* *fundamental force of life 4)Nuclear -Weakest to Strongest- |
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Fragmentation can occur on what scale
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any spatial scale
-from roads to continental drift |
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Biomes
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-bigger than states, smaller than continents
-distinguished by vegetation & climate -emphasize evolutionary convergence & -paralled evolution (dissimilar organisms come to look similar *placental & marsupial animals* *biomes regional community, life zones local community* |
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2 types of environmental change
(succession) |
1)autogenic - result of organisms in community
2) allogenic - of physical enviro (temp) |
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Riparian Corridors
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woodland along bank of river
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The most abundant elements in earth's crust are:
(3) |
Oxygen
Silicon Aluminum |
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Fathers of Ecology:
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Hunters/Gatherers
|
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Leeward side of mountain =
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rain shadow
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Life zones driven by
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*temperature
*precipitation *soils (life zones more useful in steep gradiants bc H20 flows downhill) |
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standing water zoned by :
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1)temperature
2)production/respiration (P/R Ratio) |
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6 Major Elements in Organic Molecules
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H -hydrogen
O -oxygen C -carbon N -nitrogen P -phosphorous S -sulfur (CHNOPS)---HOCNPS |
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Land : H20 =
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1 : 3
|
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Atmospheric
Gas Content |
1/4 Oxygen
3/4 Nitrogen |
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Efficiency of Energy Transfers
|
10%
(100- plant = 10- 1* consumer = 1- 2* consumer) *=degree |
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Humans are expensive for biosphere to maintain bc
|
-large
-warm (endothermic) -consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores) |
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ecosystem ecology
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study of whole living systems
|
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phsiological ecology
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responses of individuals to environmental conditions
(temp, moisture, light) |
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The Grants'
(people) |
documented natural selection (& the different types) on galapagos islands after darwin
|
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Chromosomes
Genes Alleles Locus Homozygous Heterozygous Genotype Phenotype Gene Pool |
Chromosomes(contain DNA)
Genes(subunit on chrom that carries DNA) Alleles(alternate forms of a gene) Locus(where allele occupies chrom) Homozygous(allels on locus are the same) Heterozygous(alleles are different) Genotype(sum of hereditary info) Phenotype(external expression of genotype) Gene Pool(total collection of genes in all individuals of a pop) |
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Hardy-Weinberg Principle
|
gene frequencies will remain the same over time IF
1)mating is random 2)mutations don't occur 3)pop is large 4)natural selection doesn't occur 5)migrations don't occur |
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Biological Species
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a group of populations whose individuals have the potential to interbreed
|
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isolating mechanisms
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allow a species to remain distinct
-reproductive barriers --don't allow exchange of genes between populations --premating (habitat, isolation, behavior, mechanical) OR --postmating (reduce reproductive success of offspring that arise from mating of ind of diff species) |
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Hybrids
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offspring resulting from mating of 2 diff species
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Sympatric species
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occupy the same area at the same time -- opportunity to interbreed
|
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Allopatric Species
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occupy areas seperated by time or space (don't come into physical contact with eachother)
|
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high temps lethal to most organisms bc
|
they denature proteins
|
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life zones
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NOT the same as biomes
*are influenced by temperature |
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international biological program in the US (US-IBP)
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efforts organized by biomes
|
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MERRIAM
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life zones
|
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conservation ecology & population ecology...
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go hand in hand
|
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ODUM
|
brought engeneering perspective to ecological energetics
|
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science is:
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-a search for patterns of cause and effect in the universe
-common sense--natural way of working the human mind -an evolution tested process |
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an african plant is similar in appearance to a mexican plant
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convergent evolution
(development of similar characteristics of species in different areas but under similar enviro conditions) |
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organic evolution
|
*change in gene frequency over time
[central concept in ecology] |
|
based on lecture
scientific study of ecology in colorado began with |
paleolithic people ~15,000 yrs ago
|
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biological magnification
|
accumulation of fat-soluble chemicals thru food chain
(pesticides etc) |
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communication necessarily involves
|
1)sending individual (or cell)
2)receiving individual (or cell) 3) irritability (biological sense of word) |
|
larger edge per area
advantage of who? |
-small!
(in support of several small argument) |
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people involved in laying foundations for conservation ecology
|
-macarthur
(mathematical ecologist) -e.o. wilson (sociobiologist) -darwin (pioneer evolutionist) -elton (community ecologist) |