Earth Science

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the on-site breakdown of rock and its eventual transformation into sediments

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WEATHERING

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*Disintegration and decay of rocksvia weather elements: high temperatures,extreme cold and freeze-thaw cycles

* No change in chemical compositionof rocks

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MECHANICAL or PHYSICAL WEATHERING

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dueto thermal expansion/contraction and/or release of pressure when buried rocks are uplifted and exposed

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EXFOLIATION

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Water expands when it freezes, and repeated cycles of freezing and thawing slowly weaken the structural integrity of porous and cracked rocks.

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FROST WEDGING

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Joints also expand when plants growing on its surface pry it open in a process called

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ROOT WEDGING

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When the salt crystallizes, it pushes apart the surrounding grains and weakens the rock, causing it to disintegrate when exposed to wind or rain.

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SALT WEDGING

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Occurs when rock is exposed to high temperature such as forest fire; its outer layer expands due to baking

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THERMAL EXPANSION

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occurs when there are chemical changes in at least some of the composition of the rock

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CHEMICAL WEATHERING

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happens in certain minerals which are dissolved in water

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DISSOLUTION

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Dissolves rapidly in pure water

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HALITE (NaCL)

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Dissolves rapidly in acidic water like rain water

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CALCITE (CaCO3)

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occurs when water reacts with the minerals and breaks them down. The process occurs faster in slightly acidic water.

*igneous rocks have much silica which readily combines with water

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HYDROLYSIS

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Reaction of oxygen with minerals in the rock, forms oxides.

*important in iron-rich rocks – reddish coloration like rust

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OXIDATION

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occurs when water is absorbed into the crystal structure of the mineral, causing it to expand. Certain types of clay expand through this process

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HYDRATION

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Occur in roots of plants,fungi and lichens secrete organic acids that dissolve minerals and the nutrients are taken in by these organisms.

*plants and animals contribute toweathering.

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BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

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physically break or wedge rock

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ROOTS

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(algae and fungi living as singleunit), remove minerals and weaken rock by releasing acids

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LICHENS

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can increase weathering.

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BURROWING ANIMALS

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Separation and removal of weathered and unweathered rocks and soil from its substrate due to gravity or transporting agents like wind, ice or water.

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EROSION

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the process by which sediments are moved along from the source to where they are deposited

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TRANSPORT

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•EolianLandscapes

deflation hollows, ventifacts, yardang, etc

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WIND

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•CoastalMorphology

Sea cliffs, sea caves, sea arches, sea stacks, wave-cut beaches, etc.

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TIDES AND WAVES

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•GlacialMorphology

glacialtroughs (U-shaped valleys), hanging valleys, glacial lakes,.

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Moving ice

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process in which sediments settle out of the transporting medium.

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DEPOSITION

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The layer formed when the minerals are laid down

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BED

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The distribution of grain size in a layer

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SORTING

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In a mixture with various grain sizes, the larger sediments are called

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CLASTS

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the surrounding fine-grained sediments

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MATRIX

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land forms that were usually formed by stream of water

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FLUVIAL

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arising of land from the action of the wind

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EOLIAN

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Where land meets the ocean; a line that forms the boundary between the land

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COASTAL

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erosion of ice from ice caps

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GLACIAL

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arelarge-scale land form building and transformingprocesses – they createrelief.

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ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES

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AlsocalledGradational Processes,theycomprise degradation and aggradation –they modifyrelief

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EXOGENOUS PROCESSES

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most common erosion agent

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WATER

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rolling or dragging of large grains aided by the push of smaller grains

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TRACTION

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Bouncing of sand grains as they are picked up, carried along, and dropped repeatedly

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SALTATION

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Movement of fine particles

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SUSPENSION

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Movement of soluble minerals

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SOLUTION

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Downslope movement of rock, soil and ice due to gravity.

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MASS WASTING

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The difference in elevation between two places, creates slopes; gravity pulls materials at higher elevations to lower elevations

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RELIEF

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The balance between the downslope force caused by gravity and the resistance force due to friction

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SLOPE STABILITY

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Predominantly coarse soil

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debris

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predominantly fine materials

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earth

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Dissolved chemicals in the water occupying the pore spaces in between the grains precipitate and form new minerals

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cement

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Binds together the individual grains

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CEMENTATION

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The molten rocks that are found beneath the earth's surface

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MAGMA

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When magma emerges the earth's surface

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lava

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Degree of resistance to flow

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Viscosity

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Melting can occur when the temperature stays the same but pressure decreases

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Decompression melting

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Another melting trigger is when Volatiles or gaseous substances are added into the hot solid rocks

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FLUX MELTING

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It is the melting of surrounding rocks caused by very hot magma bringing in additional heat

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Heat transfer melting

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The melting temperature of the rock, is lower than the melting temperature of its constituent minerals

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EUTECTIC TEMPERATURE

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When a rock begins to melt, only certain minerals are melted

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Partial melting

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Visible manifestation of the process of rock formation

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VOLCANOES

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serves the conduit of lava or the molten rock that reaches Earth's surface

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VENT

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the funnel-shaped depression where materials are ejected

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crater

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The event when the lava spews out of the volcano

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ERUPTION

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dominated by the flow of lava and formation of fountains and lakes

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Effusive Eruption

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ejects ash and larger fragments of broken up pyroclastic materials, forming ash clouds that eventually collapse and cover the slopes of the volcano

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Explosive eruption

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Forms very broad dome with gentle slope that covers a very wide area.

*layers of basaltic lava and cinder accumulation

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Shield Volcano

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Granular materials formed by lava fountains

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CINDERS

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Composed of alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic materials

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Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes

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which s consists of small cone formed by spattering of lava

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cinder cone

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Lavas with smooth surface

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Pahoehoe

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Lavas with very rough surface

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aa

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Certain eruptions could also produce pure volcanic glass

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OBSIDIAN

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Made of volcanic glass but with frothy texture characterized by lots of open spaces caused by gas bubbles.

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PUMICE

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The fragmental materials of various grain size produced by the volcano

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Pyroclastic debris

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pea to marble size fragments of lava

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lapilli

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very fine particles composed of glass shards, crystals, and fragments of existing rocks

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Volcanic ash

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The lithified volcanic ash

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tuff

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The blobs of lava that are thrown into the air and develops a streamlined and smooth shape fragments

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bomb

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Larger nonstreamlined chunks of lava or preexisting rocks

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Blocks

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The aggregate of pyroclastic debris that flow on the slope of a volcano

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pyroclastic flow deposit

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A pyroclastic deposit that is dominantly composed of pumice

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ignimbrite

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When the pyroclastic debris mixed with water it forms muddy like slurry

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lahar

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Vibration in the surface of earth resulting from the sudden release of energy

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Earthquake

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It returns to its original, unbent form but it is already shortened and divided into two.

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ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

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A fracture on which one body of rock slide past another

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Fault

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The place where rock ruptures and slips

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Focus/ Hypocenter

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The point at the surface directly above the focus

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epicenter

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The energy released from the hypocenter of an earthquake travels as

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seismic waves

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Waves that travel within the Interior of earth

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Body waves

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Waves in which the particles of the material move back and forth PARALLEL to the direction of wave motion

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P WAVES

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waves where the particles of the material move back and forth PERPENDICULAR to the direction of wave motion

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S WAVES

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Waves that travel along the earth's surface

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Surface waves

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Surface waves that cause the ground to ripple up and down

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Rayleigh waves

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Surface waves that cause the ground to move back and forth in a snake like movement

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Love waves

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The number that indicates the relative size energy released in an earthquake

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MAGNITUDE

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The amount of damage brought about by an earthquake usually denoted as roman numerals

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INTENSITY

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The first intensity scale

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Mercalli Intensity Scale

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A process in which rocks change in shape, size, location, tilt or break due to squeezing, stretching or shearing.

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DEFORMATION

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a force applied per unit area

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STRESS

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The resulting in the rocks due to the different types of stress

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strain

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occurs when the change in shape involves movement in one part of an object relative to its other parts such that there is change in angles between features

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SHEAR STRAIN

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Rocks can also temporarily change shape when subjected to stress but can change back to its original form when the stress is remove

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ELASTIC STRAIN

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Reversible Strain

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Elastic deformation

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Irreversible strain

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Ductile deformation

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Once it reaches the elastic limit

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permanently deformed

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The branch of geology concerned with the study of rock deformation

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structural geology

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the compass direction of the line formed by the intersection of an inclined plane and the horizontal plane.

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STRIKE

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the angle between the inclined plane and the horizontal plane

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Dip

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Natural cracks in the rocks produced by brittle deformation

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Joints

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A fault wherein there is sliding in recent geologic times

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active fault

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In an inclined fault, the block of rock on top of the fault

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Hanging wall

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The block below

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Footwall

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When the hanging wall moves down with respect to the footwall it forms

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normal fault

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If the hanging wall moves up,

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reverse fault

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A reverse fault with inclination below 35 degrees

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Thrust fault

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When the blocks slide past each other the fault is called

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Strike-slip fault

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When a block on the opposite side of the fault moves towards the right, it is called

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Right-lateral strike-slip fault

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When the block opposite the fault moves to the left,

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left-lateral strike-slip fault

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If the movement of the blocks along the fault plane is diagonal

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oblique-slip fault

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produced by deformation of ductile materials

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Folds

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part of the fold where the curvature is greatest

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hinge line or fold axis

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sides of the folds with least curvture

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limbs

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Contains fold axis of each folded layer

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axial plane

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When the limbs of the fold are inclined away from the hinge forming an arch-like shape, it is referred to as

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anticline

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When the limbs are inclined toward the hinge, forming a trough-like shape

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syncline

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a bend in generally flat-lying rock layer

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monocline

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When the axial plane is inclined and one limb is steeper than the other, the fold is described as

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overturned

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The process when a rock changes its form into a new one without undergoing melting or disintegration

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Metamorphism

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The changes in shape and size of minerals without changing its identity

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Recrystallization

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The process that transforms a grain of one mineral into grain of another mineral having the same composition but different crystal structure

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Phase Change

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The growth of new minerals that differ from those in the protolith.

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Neocrystallization

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The dissolution of mineral grains when a rock is squeezed dominantly in one direction at relatively low temperature and pressure and in the presence of water

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Pressure solution

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occurs when some minerals become flattened or elongated without changing either the composition or crystal structure due to their plastic behavior when exposed to high temperature and pressure

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Plastic deformation

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The process wherein hydrothermal fluids are involved in the change of chemical composition of rock

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metasomatism

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The zone of metamorphic rock around an intrusive body

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metamorphic aureole

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at the upper part, diagenesis takes place but at depths of 8km to 15km temperature is high enough to cause metamorphism

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burial metamorphism

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leads to recrystallization of minerals in fault zone

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dynamic or cataclastic metamorphism

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only involves shearing and does not require change in temperature or pressure.

*rock that is formed in this process

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mylonite

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lead to changes that result into foliated metamorphic rock

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regional metamorphism