Dna, Rna, & Protein Synthesis

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3 things nucleotides have

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Nitrogenous base. Sugar. Phosphate group.

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RNA structure

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Single strand. A and U. C and G. Ribose

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mRNA

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Directs protein synthesis (carries instructions for protein synthesis from DNA to the ribsomes)

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tRNA

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Transfer RNA. Transports/carries amino acids to the ribosomes (to be added to a protein during protein synthesis)

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rRNA

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Ribsosomal RNA. Makes up a ribsome

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Transcription

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DNA to mRNA. Occurs in nucleus. Steps: initiation, elongation, termination.

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Translation

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RNA to protein. Happens in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes.

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4 Structures needed for translation

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Ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, amino acids

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Steps for translation

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Initiation, elongation, termination, protein is folded and further modified by rough ER and golgi appartus.

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Mutations

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Errors in the DNA sequence. These will usually change the protein and prevent it from forming results in disease or death.

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Mitosis

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Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

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Interphase

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Period when cell is not dividing. G1, s phase, g2. DNA is replicated in s phase.

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Meiosis

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Occurs in sex cells. Cell divides twice to reduce chromosome number in half. Yields 4 haploid cells. FSH, sex hormones and inhibin control meiosis.

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Genetics

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Study of inheritance

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Homologous chromosomes

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A pair of chromosomes that control the same traits but not necessarily the same alleles

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Diploid

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Cell contains both chromosomes of each homogolous pair. All cells have 46 chromosomes except gametes.

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Haploid

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Cell contains 1 chromosome of each homogolous pair. Gamete (sperm/egg) have 23 chromosomes.

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Law of dominance

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A dominant allele masks the expression of a recessive allele in a gene pair. Ex: Bb

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Principle of segregation

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Allele pairs separate when gametes are formed. Each gamete receives one allele fir each trait.

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Principle of independent assortment

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Traits carried on separate chromosomes are inherited independently of one another. Results in more genotypes.

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Incomplete dominance

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Neither allele dominates so both are partially expressed. Ex: sickle cell trait, flower color

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Codominance

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Two alleles are equally dominant Ex: blood type

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Polygenic inheritance

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Combined effect of 2 or more genes

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Sex linked traits

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Abnormal gene on x chrom., shows up more often in males since the y chrom can't mask the x Ex: color blindness, hemophilia

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Sex influenced trait

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Gene is dominant in males and recessive in females. Ex baldness

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Complex inheritance

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Combined effects of many genes and environmental factors, results in a wide variety of phenotypes. Ex skin color, hair, eyes, height

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Rh incompatibility

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Rh+ is dominant, Rh- is recessive. Happens when mom is negative and fetus is positive in second etc pregnancies.

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Genetic abnormalities

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If mutations happen in gametes. 1 in 12 pregnancies have this and end in miscarriage. 1 in 150 births has a chromosomal aberration.

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Aneuploidy

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Abnormal number of chromosomes. Not 46

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Monosomy

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Missing one chromosome. Usually not fatal

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Polysomy

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One or more extra chrom. Death or severe disabilities

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Nondisjuction

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Chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis. One gamete ends up with 24 and one with 22 chrom.

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Anaphase lag

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One chrom lags behind during meiosis and is left out of the cell. Ex 23 and 22

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Examples of aneuploidy

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Down syndrome: Extra chrom 21 from nondisjuction during oogenesis. Trisomies of other chrom don't survive.

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Abnormal chromosome structure

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Right number of chromosomes but wrong structure. Usually happen during crossover in meiosis.

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Translocation

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Crossover occurs between nonhomolgous chrom. Eg swapping genes with a different trait

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Inversion

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Genes are in the wrong order

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Deletion

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Loss of a portion of a chromosome

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Duplication

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A portion of a chrom is duplicated

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Mendelian single gene disorders

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Mutations of single genes, which then code for abnormal enzymes, structural proteins or regulatory proteins. 85% are inherited.

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Autosomal dominant disorders

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Single gene disorder. The abnormal allele is dominant so only one copy of the affected allele is needed to have the disease. Ex. Huntingtons

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Autosomal recessive disorders

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Single gene disorder. The abnormal gene is recessive so two copies of the affected allele are needed to have the disease. If you are heterozygous that makes you a carrier. Ex. Tay sachs

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Triple repeat mutations

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Many extra repeating triplets of DNA bases