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165 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What shape does DNA have? |
Double stranded antiparallel helix |
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Bases in DNA |
Thymine-Adenine Cytopsine-Guanine |
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What forms the genetic code? |
The base sequence of DNA |
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What backbone does DNA have? |
Deoxyribose Sugar phosphate backbone |
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Where is the phosphate positioned in a 5 to 3 prime strand? |
Above the sugar |
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What bond holds the bases together? |
Weak hydrogen bonds |
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What is a genotype determined by? |
The sequence of DNA bases |
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Where is DNA is stored in bacteria/prokaryotes? |
In a single circular chromosome centred in the cell |
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What is a plasmid? |
Secondary chromosomes Contain additional genes and non-essential genes |
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What are some examples of eukaryotes? |
Animals, plants, and fungi |
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Where is the DNA stored in eukaryotes? |
DNA is found within the linear chromosomes within the membrane-bound nucleus |
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How are eukaryote chromosomes packaged? |
Within the nucleus is tightly coiled and packaged with special proteins called histones |
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What circular chromosomes are found within eukaryotes? |
Mitochondria and chloroplasts DNA both use your own DNA to make proteins needed for their function |
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What is special about yeast? |
Yeast is a eukaryotic cell But contains plasma |
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What kind of process is DNA replication? |
Semi Conservative process |
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Why does DNA replication take place? |
Performed at the beginning of every cell division so that when the South divides each daughter cell will Inherit an identical copy of the DNA. |
When? Explain mitosis |
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What are the requirements for DNA replication? |
Original DNA template Free DNA nucleotides DNA polymerase Primers |
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Stage one of DNA replication; |
The DNA is unwound and unzipped |
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What bonds are broken when DNA is unzipped? |
The weak hydrogen bonds between the bases |
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What is a primer? |
A short strand of nucleotides Provides template DNA for replication |
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Second stage of DNA replication; |
DNA polymerase Adds free DNA nucleotides to the 3’ end of the primer |
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Why is the primer needed? |
A primer is needed to start replication |
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How is the leading strand replicated? |
Continuously DNA polymerase add nucleotides in a 3 to 5 prime direction |
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How is the lagging strand synthesised? And how? |
Synthesised in fragments Nucleotides cannot be added to the five prime end |
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What are the fragments on the lagging strand sealed together by? |
DNA ligase |
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What is the final step of DNA replication? |
The two new strand twist to form a double helix |
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What is PCR? |
Polymerase chain reaction A technique for the Amplification of DNA in vitro |
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Requirements for PCR; |
DNA Complimentary primers Thermal cycler Heat tolerant DNA polymerase Supply of nucleotides |
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First stage of PCR; |
DNA is heated to 92 to 98 Causing that the DNA to denatured And strands to separate |
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Second stage of PCR; |
DNA is called 50 to 65 Allows primers to bind to target sequence |
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Stage three of PCR; |
Heated to 70 to 80 Heat tolerant DNA polymerase replicates the religion of DNA |
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Stage four of PCR; |
Process is repeated |
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PCR uses; |
Identification of individuals (DNA profiling) Disease detection Archaeological research Population studies Sequencing |
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What is gene expression made up of? |
Transcription and translation of DNA sequences Involving RNA |
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What is RNA? |
A single-stranded nucleic acid Composed of nucleotides Contains a ribose sugar, Phosphate, and a base |
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What bass replaces Thymine in RNA? |
Uracil |
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What type of sugar does RNA contain? |
Ribose sugar |
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What are the three types of RNA? |
mRNA tRNA rRNA |
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What is rRNA? |
Ribosome RNA And proteins form the ribosome |
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What is tRNA? |
Transfer RNA Made from single-strand RNA which folds due to base pairing Triple anti codon site Attachment side for specific amino acid |
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What is mRNA? |
Messenger RNA Carries a copy of gene to be expressed from nucleus Single-stranded linear |
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Where is the codon found? |
On messenger RNA strand Three bases |
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What are the coding regions of DNA called? |
Exons |
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What are non-coding regions called? |
Introns |
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What happens to the primary messenger RNA transcript during RNA splicing? |
Introns are removed Remaining exons are joined together to form a continuous sequence called the mature transcript |
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What is the benefit of alternative RNA splicing? |
One gene can produce many different proteins |
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Stage one of transcription; |
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA unwinding the Strand |
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Stage two of transcription; |
Hydrogen bonds between the bases break |
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Stage three of transcription; |
RNA polymerase synthesises a primary transcript of mRNA using RNA nucleotides These form hydrogen bonds with the exposed DNA strand bases |
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Stage four of transcription; |
The strand elongate until terminator sequence is reached on the DNA strand |
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Stage five of transcription; |
The hydrogen bonds break when the mature transcript is ready It leaves the nucleus and travels to the ribosome |
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What are ribosomes? |
Made from rRNA And enzymes essential for protein synthesis Inside the ribosome there is space for three tRNA molecules |
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First stage of translation process; |
Messenger RNA strand binds to 5 prime end of start codon |
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First stage of translation process; |
Messenger RNA strand binds to 5 prime end of start codon |
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Stage two of translation process; |
tRNA molecules Transport specific amino acid to the ribosome |
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First stage of translation process; |
Messenger RNA strand binds to 5 prime end of start codon |
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Stage two of translation process; |
tRNA molecules Transport specific amino acid to the ribosome |
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Stage three of the translation process; |
A peptide bond forms between the two amino acids in the chain and the ribosome moves along one codon |
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First stage of translation process; |
Messenger RNA strand binds to 5 prime end of start codon |
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Stage two of translation process; |
tRNA molecules Transport specific amino acid to the ribosome |
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Stage three of the translation process; |
A peptide bond forms between the two amino acids in the chain and the ribosome moves along one codon |
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Stage four of the translation process; |
They used transfer RNA molecule exit the ribosomes and Collects another specific amino acid |
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First stage of translation process; |
Messenger RNA strand binds to 5 prime end of start codon |
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Stage two of translation process; |
tRNA molecules Transport specific amino acid to the ribosome |
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Stage three of the translation process; |
A peptide bond forms between the two amino acids in the chain and the ribosome moves along one codon |
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Stage four of the translation process; |
They used transfer RNA molecule exit the ribosomes and Collects another specific amino acid |
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Last stage of the translation process; |
The last codon of the mRNA molecule is a stop codon which signals the end of the translation |
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What is a proteins function dependent on? |
It is dependent on its structure |
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Examples of proteins; |
Enzymes hormones antibodies |
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Examples of proteins; |
Enzymes hormones antibodies |
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How are proteins bonded? |
Polypeptide bonds between the amino acids Hydrogen bonds between the layers |
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What is a cellular differentiation? |
The process by which a cell expresses certain genes to produce proteins characteristics for that cell type. allowing the cell to carry out specialised functions |
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What do you differentiated cells lose the ability to do? |
Make copies of themselves |
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What is a meristem? |
A region of unspecialised cells in a plant |
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What is a meristem? |
A region of unspecialised cells in a plant |
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What do you meristems do? |
Meristems ensure that the plant continues to grow Apical Meristems at length to roots |
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What is a meristem? |
A region of unspecialised cells in a plant |
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What do you meristems do? |
Meristems ensure that the plant continues to grow Apical Meristems at length to roots |
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What are the two Types of Stem cells |
Embryonic stem cells Tissue (adult) stem cells |
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Embryonic stem cells; |
Found in early embryo All genes can be expressed Pluripotent |
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Embryonic stem cells; |
Found in early embryo All genes can be expressed Pluripotent |
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Adult stem cells; |
Founded in mature organisms Multipotent Can only express and limited range of cells |
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Name some therapeutic uses of stem cells |
Growing skin grafts Treating severe burns repair damaged cornea |
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What is a Genome? |
It’s hereditary information encoded in the DNA Made up of genes and other DNA sequences that do not code for proteins |
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What are in introns involved in? |
Regulating transcription |
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What two results can a mutation have? |
No protein is expressed Altered protein is expressed |
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What are the single bass mutations? |
Substitution Insertion Deletion |
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What are the single bass mutations? |
Substitution Insertion Deletion |
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Substitution? |
Subbing a base in for another |
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Insertion? |
Adding a base to the sequence |
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Deletion? |
Removing a base from the sequence |
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Name the frameshift mutations |
Deletion and insertion All codons and therefore all amino acids after the mutation are changed |
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What is a missense mutation? |
Results in one amino acid being replaced for another Potential non-functional protein for little effect |
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What is a missense mutation? |
Results in one amino acid being replaced for another Potential non-functional protein for little effect |
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What is a nonsense mutation? |
Result in premature stop codon being produced Resulting in shorter proteins stand |
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What is a missense mutation? |
Results in one amino acid being replaced for another Potential non-functional protein for little effect |
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What is a nonsense mutation? |
Result in premature stop codon being produced Resulting in shorter proteins stand |
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Splice site Mutation; |
Results in some introns being retained and some exons being excluded from the mature transcript |
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Name the chromosome structure mutations |
Duplication Inversion Deletion Translocation |
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Duplication; |
Duplication is where a section of chromosome is added from it homologous partner |
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Deletion; |
Deletion is where a section of chromosome is removed |
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Inversion; |
Inversion is where a section of chromosome is reversed |
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Inversion; |
Inversion is where a section of chromosome is reversed |
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Translocation; |
Translocation is where a section of chromosome is added to a chromosome that is not its homologous partner |
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Why is gene duplication very important? |
Because it can facilitate the creation of new genes Beneficial gene can be created while the original continues to function |
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What is evolution? |
Evolution is the process by which the living things change over time These changes are a result of changes to the Genome |
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What is evolution? |
Evolution is the process by which the living things change over time These changes are a result of changes to the Genome |
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Changes to the pool of gene are caused by; |
Gene transfer Natural selection Speciation |
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What is evolution? |
Evolution is the process by which the living things change over time These changes are a result of changes to the Genome |
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Changes to the pool of gene are caused by; |
Gene transfer Natural selection Speciation |
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What are the two types of gene transfer? |
Vertical transfer Horizontal transfer |
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What is evolution? |
Evolution is the process by which the living things change over time These changes are a result of changes to the Genome |
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Changes to the pool of gene are caused by; |
Gene transfer Natural selection Speciation |
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What are the two types of gene transfer? |
Vertical transfer Horizontal transfer |
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Vertical gene transfer; |
When genes are transferred down generations Parents to offspring |
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What is evolution? |
Evolution is the process by which the living things change over time These changes are a result of changes to the Genome |
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Changes to the pool of gene are caused by; |
Gene transfer Natural selection Speciation |
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What are the two types of gene transfer? |
Vertical transfer Horizontal transfer |
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Vertical gene transfer; |
When genes are transferred down generations Parents to offspring |
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Horizontal gene transfer; |
When genes are transferred across from an individual to others in the same generation |
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What is evolution? |
Evolution is the process by which the living things change over time These changes are a result of changes to the Genome |
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Changes to the pool of gene are caused by; |
Gene transfer Natural selection Speciation |
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What are the two types of gene transfer? |
Vertical transfer Horizontal transfer |
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Vertical gene transfer; |
When genes are transferred down generations Parents to offspring |
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Horizontal gene transfer; |
When genes are transferred across from an individual to others in the same generation |
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Horizontal gene transfer? |
Instantaneous and therefore can result in faster evolutionary change |
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What is natural selection? |
And nonrandom increase in the frequency of DNA sequences that increase survival Nonrandom reduction in the frequency of deleterious sequences |
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What is a selection pressure? |
Any cause that impacts the reproductive success in a proportion of the population exerts a selection pressure |
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What is a selection pressure? |
Any cause that impacts the reproductive success in a proportion of the population exerts a selection pressure |
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What are the forms of natural selection? |
Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection |
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What is a selection pressure? |
Any cause that impacts the reproductive success in a proportion of the population exerts a selection pressure |
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What are the forms of natural selection? |
Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection |
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Stabilising selection; |
An average phenotype is selected for and extremes of the phenotype are selected against Leads to reduction in genetic diversity |
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What is a selection pressure? |
Any cause that impacts the reproductive success in a proportion of the population exerts a selection pressure |
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What are the forms of natural selection? |
Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection |
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Stabilising selection; |
An average phenotype is selected for and extremes of the phenotype are selected against Leads to reduction in genetic diversity |
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Directional selection; |
One extreme of the phenotype range is selected for Causing a progressive shift in the average phenotype value |
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What is a selection pressure? |
Any cause that impacts the reproductive success in a proportion of the population exerts a selection pressure |
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What are the forms of natural selection? |
Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection |
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Stabilising selection; |
An average phenotype is selected for and extremes of the phenotype are selected against Leads to reduction in genetic diversity |
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Directional selection; |
One extreme of the phenotype range is selected for Causing a progressive shift in the average phenotype value |
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Disruptive selection; |
Two or more phenotypes are selected for Can result in population being split into two distinct groups Driving force behind Sympatric speciation |
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What is a selection pressure? |
Any cause that impacts the reproductive success in a proportion of the population exerts a selection pressure |
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What are the forms of natural selection? |
Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection |
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Stabilising selection; |
An average phenotype is selected for and extremes of the phenotype are selected against Leads to reduction in genetic diversity |
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Directional selection; |
One extreme of the phenotype range is selected for Causing a progressive shift in the average phenotype value |
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Disruptive selection; |
Two or more phenotypes are selected for Can result in population being split into two distinct groups Driving force behind Sympatric speciation |
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What is a species? |
A species is a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring Does not normally breed with other groups |
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What are the two types of speciation? |
Allopatric Sympatric |
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What are the stages of speciation? |
Isolation Mutation Selection |
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Allopatric speciation; |
Due to isolation of a population by geographical barriers Rivers, mountains, valleys |
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Sympatric speciation; |
In the same geographical area Ecological barriers and behavioural barriers |
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What is genomic sequencing? |
The process by which the sequence of nucleotide bases is determined for Individual genes or entire genomes |
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Stages of genomic sequencing; |
Restriction endonuclease enzyme used to cut strand Determine sequence of manageable sections of DNA Reassemble manageable sections into correct order |
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Stages of genomic sequencing; |
Restriction endonuclease enzyme used to cut strand Determine sequence of manageable sections of DNA Reassemble manageable sections into correct order |
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What is genomic sequencing used in? |
Comparison of genomes in species research Personal genomics and health Phylogenetic’s |
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What is phylogenetic’s? |
The study of evolutionary history and relationships |
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Bioinformatics; |
When computer programs are used to identify base sequences by looking for sequences similar to known genes Comparing sequence data |
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Timeline of evolution; |
Evolution of Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Animals Vertebrates Land animals |
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Timeline of evolution; |
Evolution of Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Animals Vertebrates Land animals |
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What are molecular clocks? |
They assume a constant mutation rate and show differences in DNA Sequences or amino acid sequences Indicate time of Divergence from a common ancestor |
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What are the three domains of life |
Bacteria Archaea Eukaryotes |
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What are the three domains of life |
Bacteria Archaea Eukaryotes |
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What is personal genomics and health? |
And individuals Genome can be analysed to predict the likelihood of developing certain diseases |
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What is a phramocogenetics? |
The use of genome information and choice of drugs Individuals do you know sequences can be used to select the most effective drugs and dosage |
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