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145 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Questions Developmentalists ask:
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1) How do nature/nurture shape development?
2)How do children shape their own development? 3)How is development continuous/discontinuous? 4)How does change occur? 5)Whats the legacy of early experience? 6)How does the sociocultural context influence development? 7)How do children become so different from eachother? |
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Nature
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our biological endowment, the genes we receive from our parents
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Nurture
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physical and social environments that influence development
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Heritability
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-statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance ona given trait among individuals in a given population attributed to genetic differences amongst those individuals
- High heritability= lots of shared genes -Heritability is NEVER 100% correlated with psychological traits |
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Genotype
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genetic materials individuals inherit from their parents
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Evironment
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every aspect of an individual's surroundings (other than the genes themselves)
-includes internal environment |
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Phenotype
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observable expression of genotype and environmental influence
-includes body characteristics and behavior |
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Gene-Environment Interactions
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when the effects of something in the environment depend on genetic variation
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Norm of Reaction
(Reaction Range) |
Variability in phenotypes that could arise from particular genotype across different environments
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Active Child
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Inc in self-determination with age
-3 most important contributions during children's first years: 1. Attentional Patterns 2. Language Use 3. Play -Effects are bidirectional: child and parent, child and environment |
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Continuity and Discontinuity
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-Refers to the RATE of change
-Can also refer to TYPE of change |
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Continuous Development
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age-related changes occur gradually
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Discontinuous Development
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Age-related changes include occasional large shifts so childrens of diff age groups seem qualitatively different
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Homotypic
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-Same type of change
ex: vocabulary development |
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Heterotypic
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-Different types of change
ex: Measuring aggression differently over time biting->threats-> rude driving |
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Qualitative Change
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-type of change
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Quantitative Change
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-amount of change
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Variation
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differences in thought and behavior within/amongst individuals
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Selection
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more frequent survival and reproduction of organisms that are well adapted to their environment
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Variation and Selection
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Appear to produce changes within an individual lifetime
ex: young children learning addition problems, "counting on" |
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Plasticity
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openness to change
the ability to be affected by experience |
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Critical Periods
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-If it doesn't happen in a certain time period, it won't happen at all
ex: language acquisition, imprinting |
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Sensitive Periods
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-Development in certain domains is more plastic during specific periods
-Presence/Absence of specific experiences has long ranging effects beyond the sensitive pd Ex: Visual systems and Social Interactions |
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Continuity
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-Most developmental domains show strong continuity over time
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Lawful Discontinuity
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When changes occur they are usually accounted for by shifts in environment or person
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Sociocultural Context
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The physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up child's environment
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Socioeconomic Status
(SES) |
-a measure of social class based on income and education. Exerts a large influence over children's lives
-Development affected by ethnicity, race, and SES |
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Individual Difference
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-how children/adults are different even in similar circumstances
-Occurs due to Nature/Nurture, Genetic Variation, and variation in environment and experiences |
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Sources of Information
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-Self-report (structured interview, clinical interview, questionnaire)
-Other-report -Archival Data -Observations (naturalistic and structured) |
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Interview
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-Children answer questions asked personally or questionnaire
-Can reveal subjective experience, inexpensive, flexibile for followup/unexpected comments -Disadvantages: reports biased, memory incomplete/inaccurate, prediction of future behaviors inaccurate |
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Naturalistic Observation
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-Activities of chiuldren in everyday settings observed
-Advantages: Useful for describing everyday behavior, helps illuminate social interaction process -Disadvantage: Difficult to know which aspects of situation are most influential, limited value for studying infrequent behaviors |
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Structured Observation
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-Children brought to lab and presented with prearranged tasks
-Advantages: Ensures children's behavior is observed in same context, allows controlled comparison of children's behavior in different situations -Disadvantages: Context is less natural, reveals less about subjective experience than interviews |
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Reliability
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-getting the same response, value, or data over and over
-the degree to which independent measurements of a specific behavior are consistent |
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Validity
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-measuring what you think you're measuring
-the degree to which a test/experiment measures what it is intended to measure |
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Interrater Reliability
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-the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior
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Test-Retest Reliability
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-Attained when measures of performance are similar on two or more occasions
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Internal Validity
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-degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the variables that the researcher intentionally manipulated
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External Validity
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degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research
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Types of Studies
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Correlational and Experimental
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Correlational Studies
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-Comparison of existing groups of children/examination of relations among child's scores on different variables
-Adv: only way to compare many groups of interest, only way to establish relations among many variables of interest -Disadv: third variable issue, Direction of causation problem -Most common type -"X predicts Y"..."Higher ABC is associated with more XYZ" ex: How does parental harshness influence child's depression? |
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Experimental Studies
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-Random assignment of children to groups and experimental control of procedures presented to each group
-Adv: allows casual inferences bc design rules out direction of causation and 3rd variable issues -Designed to test cause-effect relations -Includes most studies of intervention programs - has a CONTROL group **Just because something is structured does NOT mean it is experimental. |
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Length of Studies
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-Cross-sectional
-Longitudinal (Prospective, Accelerated) -Microgenetic |
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Cross-Sectional Designs
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-children of different ages are compared on a behavior/characteristic over a short period of time
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Longitudinal Designs
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-Used when same child is studied twice or more over substantial period of time
-Usually more informative, but more costly |
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Microgenetic
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-Used to provide in-depth depiction of processes that produce change
-Child on verge of important developmental change is provided with heightened exposure to the type of experience believed to produce change, are studied intensly during behavioral transition |
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Ethical Issues
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-Reduction of risk/harm is paramount
-Informed consent not possible with children -Assent with parental consent |
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Chapter 2
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Prenatal Development
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Three Periods of Prenatal Development
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1)Germinal
2)Embryonic 3)Fetal |
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Germinal
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-conception to implantation (2 weeks)
-rapid cell division takes place |
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Embryonic
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-3 to 8 weeks
-Major development in all organs/systems of body -Cell division, migration, differentiation, apoptosis, and hormonal influences |
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Fetal
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-9 weeks- birth
-Continued development of physical structures and rapid body growth -Inc levels of behavior, sensory experience, and learning |
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Cephalocaudal Development
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-from 4th week on
-areas near head develop earlier than those far away |
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3 Layers of Embryonic Cells
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-Top Layer: Nervous system, skin, teeth
-Middle layer: Muscles, bones, circulatory system -Inner Layer: Digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, glands |
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Movement
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-begins around 5 weeks
-most movements present at birth develop around 12 weeks -continuity of activity level from fetus to newborn |
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Touch
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-Tactile stimulation: grasping, rubbing, sucking
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Taste
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-swallowing amniotic fluid
-preference for sweet flavors |
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Smell
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-Fetal breathing allows for olifactory senses
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Hearing
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-external and internal noises
-Fetal responses from 6 months onward |
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Fetal Rest-Activity Cycles
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-Become stable during 2nd half of pg
-Circadian Rhythms apparent -Near end of pg, fetal sleep/wake states are similar to those of the newborn |
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Habituation
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-Occurs at 32 weeks
-decreased response to repeated or continued stimulation |
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Hazards to Prenatal Development
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-Miscarriage
-Maternal Factors -Teratogens |
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Miscarriage
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-spontaneous abortion
-45% + of conceptions result in early miscarriage -15-20% of pgs of which mom is aware of are miscarried -majority of embryos that miscarry have sever defects |
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Maternal Factors
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-Less than 15 yrs or over 35
-Inadequate Nutrition (folic acid) -Illness: STDs; if mom gets flu and baby is genetically predispositioned for schitzophrenia increases risk -Stress/Emotional State |
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Teratogens
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-Environmental agents that have potential to cause harm during prenatal development
-Timing is crucial factor -Many agents only cause damage if exposed during a sensitive period -Most show dose-response relation -Difficult to identify bc of sleeper effects -Teratogens include both legal and illegal substances (ex: soft cheese) |
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
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FAS
-associated with mental retardation, facial deformity, ect -Rate is inc bc we are more aware and making more diagnosis -Higher risk in early weeks of pg |
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Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
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-FAS: fetal alcohol syndrome
-ARND: Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder ARBD- Alcohol-Related Birth Defects |
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Diagnosing FAS
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-3 Dysmorphic Facial Features: Smooth Philtrum, Thin Vermillion Border, Small Palpebral Fissures
-Prenatal/Postnatal growth deficit in height/weight -CNS abnormality (structural, neurological, functional) |
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Infant Mortality
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-Very correlated to SES status, especially in the SE
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SIDs
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-Highest risk is 2-5 months
-Likely caused by respiratory occlusion -Prevention: baby on back, no smoking, firm mattress (no pillows), not too warm |
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Low Birth Weight Infants
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-weigh less than 5.5 lbs
-more med complications, more developmental difficulties, and special challenges for parents -End up turning out well |
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Premature
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-babies born at or before 35 weeks
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SGA
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-small for gestation age
-when bw is substantially lower than norm for their gestational age |
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The 4th Trimester
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-big shifts from 2.5-3 months postnatal
-bc mom has small pelvis and baby has big heads -improve in visual acuity, sleep/wake rhythms, ability to self-soothe |
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The 5 S's
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-5 Ways for Mom to replicate intrauterine environment:
Swaddling, Side/Stomach positions, Shushing, Swinging, Sucking |
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Chapter 3
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Brain Development
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Neurons
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-Specialized cells that are basic units of the brain's information system
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Cell Body
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-contains basic biological material that keep neuron functioning
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Dendrites
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-receives input fro other cells and conducts it toward the cell body
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Axons
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-conducts electrical signals to connections with other neurons
**Connections= synapses |
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Glial Cells
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-provide critical supportive functions for neurons:
-form myelin sheath around certain axons-> provides insulation that inc speed/efficiency of information transmission |
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Gray Matter
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-made up of cell bodies and dendrites
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White Matter
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-includes neural axons and myelin sheath around them
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Phrenology
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-first scientific attempts to identify locations of brain function
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Lobes
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-major areas of cortex that are associated with different categories of behavior
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Occipital Lobe
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-Primarily associated with processing visual information
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Temporal Lobe
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-Involved in memory, visual recognition, and processing of emotion/auditory information
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Parietal Lobe
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-Governs spatial processing and integrates sensory input with information in memory
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Frontal Lobe
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-Organizes behavior and is responsible for planning
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Association Areas
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-where information from multiple sensory systems is processed and integrated
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Corpus Callosum
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-dense tract of fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
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Cerebral Lateralization
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-two hemispheres are specialized for different modes of processing
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Neurogenesis
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-Proliferation of neurons through cell division, usually complete by 18 weeks after conception
-Neurons migrate where they grow and differentiate: -axons elongate -dendrites form spines (inc capacity to form connections) -In cortex, most intense growth pd occures after birth |
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Myelination
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-Purpose: inc speed and information processing abilities
-begins prenatally and through childhood-->continues into adulthood esp in prefrontal cortex |
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Synaptogenesis
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-each neuron forms synapses with thousands of other neurons, forms trillions of connections
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Synaptic Pruning
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-extensive generation of neurons/synapses results in overabundance that must be eliminated
-occurs at diff times in diff areas of the brain-->not fully complete until adolescence |
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Plasticity
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-the capacity of the brain to be affected by experience
-Experience plays big role in synaptic pruning -Neural Darwinism: synapses that are frequently activated are preserved |
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Experience-Expectant Plasticity
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-PRUNES->starts with a lot and prunes down
ex: kitten visual system -Occurs during sensitive periods -Subject to synaptic pruning -intrinsically and extrinsically regulated -process through which normal brain wiring occurs through the experiences that every human that inhabits any reasonably normal environment will have -Too risky and inefficient to prewire a system, given novelty and unexpected demands that may be encountered |
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Sensitive Periods
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-when synaptic pruning occurs
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Experience-Dependent Plasticity
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-CREATES-> new neural connections created/organized as result of individual's experience
ex: rats and complex environment -Synaptic Generation -Extrinsically regulated -Mechanism of learning and memory that is unique to individual's environment ex: left hand of guitar players |
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EEG
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-electroencephalographic
-electrodes rest on scalp and measure electrical activity generated by neurons |
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ERP
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-Event Related Potentials
-detects changes in brain activity in response to presentation of a particular stimulus |
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fMRI
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-functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
-uses a magnet to map cerebral blood flow in brain |
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PET scan
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-Positron Emission Tomography
-require injecting radioactive materials, reveals metabolic activity |
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Brain Functioning and Aging
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-Normative cognitive decline
-Fluid intelligence peaks at 25 then decreases (problem solving, pattern recognition) -Crystallized Intelligence (specific acquired knowledge) retains throughout adulthood until 65 then declines ***Dementia is NOT normal |
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Chapter 4
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Theories of Cognitive Development
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4 Theories of Cognitive Development
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1) Piaget's Theory
2)Information-Processing Theories 3)Core-Knowledge Theories 4)Sociocultural Theories |
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Piaget's Theory
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-Birth->adolescence
-language, scientific reasoning, moral development, memory, ect. -Interaction is the mechanism of change -Child as scientist -Continuity and Discontinuity |
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Adaptation
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-human cognition as a specific form of biological adaptation of a complex organism to a complex environment
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Organization
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-Mind builds its knowledge structures by taking external info and interpreting, transforming, and reorganizing it
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Assimilation
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-interpret external objects/events in terms of own available/present ways of thinking
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Accomodation
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-Adjust your knowledge in response to special characteristics of the object/event
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Equilibrium
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-no descrepancies between experience and understanding
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Qualitative Change
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-Children of different ages/stages think in different ways
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Broad Applicability
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-type of thinking at each stage applies across diverse topics/contexts
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Brief Transitions
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-Children fluctuate btwn two types of thinking for a short pd of time
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Invariant Sequence
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-sequences of stages are stable for all people through all time...stages are NOT skipped
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Piaget's Stages
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4
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1)Sensorimotor Stage
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-birth to 2 yrs
-knowledge develops through sensory and motor abilities -Six substages |
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1a) Substage 1
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-birth to 1 month
-building knowledge through reflexes (grasping sucking) |
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1b) Substage 2
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-1 to 4 months
-reflexes organized into larger, integrated behaviors (grasping a rattle and bringing it to mouth to suck) |
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1c) Substage 3
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-4 to 8 months
-Repetition of actions on the environment that bring out pleasing or interesting results (banging a rattle) |
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1d) Substage 4
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-8 to 12 months
-Mentally representing objects when objects can no longer be seen, thus achieving object permanence. -A not B errors occur |
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1e) Substage 5
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-12 to 18 months
-Actively and avidly exploring the possible uses to which objects can be put: Banging a spoon or cup on high chair to make different sounds/get attention |
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1f) Substage 6
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-18 to 24 months
-Able to form enduring mental representations -Demonstrated by "deferred imitation" the repitition of others behaved mins/hours/days after occurance |
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2) Preoperational Stage
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-2 to 7 years
-Symbolic representations-> the use of one object to stand for another -Egocentrism-> looking at the world only from one's own point of view -Centration: Focusing on one dimension of objects/events and on static states rather than transformations -Relies on appearance rather than underlying realities!!! |
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3) Concrete Operations Stage
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-7 to 12 years
-Decentration and Transformation -Reversible intellectual operations -Logical thinking begins -Operations can be applied only to concrete objects (present or mentally represented) |
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4) Formal Operations Stage
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-12+ years
-Not Universal! -Ability to think abstractly -Ability to engage in scientific thinking -Ponder deep questions regarding truth, justice, morality, ect. |
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Criticisms of Piaget's Theory
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-Children's thinking is not as consistent as the stages suggest, its far more variable
-Infants and young children are more competent that Piaget recognized -Piaget understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development -Piaget was better at describing processes than explaining how they operate |
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Information-Processing Theories
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-Focus on development of learning, memory, and problem solving skills
-Examine how Nature/Nurture work together -The active child as the Problem Solver -View children as undergoing continuous cognitive change -Mechanism of change is precise specification of processes involved in children's cognition |
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Information-Processing Theories
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-Cognative development results from children's gradually overcoming their processing limitations through:
-Inc effective execution of basic processes -Acquisition of new strategies -Acquisition of new knowledge |
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Alternative Information-Processing Theories: Connectionist Theories
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-Emphasize parallel processing
-Neural-network approach -Learning rule; adjusts the strength of the connections according to feedback |
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Dynamic Systems Theories
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-Cognition consists of integrated processes that include preception, memory, motor activity, language, and emotions
-No thinking without behavior: what you observe as evidence of "cognition" is product of multiple developmental systems |
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Core-Knowledge Theories of Cognitive Development
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-Nature and Nurture
-Children have innate cognitive knowledge -Specialized learning abilities that allow them to quickly and effortlessly acquire information of evolutionary importance |
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Core-Knowledge Theories:
Domain Specificity |
-innate understandings are restricted to particular major domains (lang/space/numbers)
-Children actively organize their understanding of the most important domains into informal theories |
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Sociocultural Theories
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-Nature and NURTURE-> development occurs through interaction with parents/siblings/playmates
-Active Child: learner and teacher -Mechanism of Change: kids are social beings shaped by their cultural contexts -Cognitive change originates in social interactions |
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Vygotsky's Theory
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-Social Scaffolding: more competent people provide temporary guidance that leads children to higher order thinking
-Zone of Proximal Development: range btwn what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal social support -Egocentric Speech |
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Habituation
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-How infants learn
-dec in response to repeated stimulation, revealing learning has occured Speed of habituation is associated w/processing speed and efficiency -Correlated with later IQ |
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Perceptual Learning: Differentiation
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-ability to extract invariant elements from the constantly changing environment
-Depends on ability to notice certain associations |
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Statistical Learning
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-Forming associations among stimuli that occur in predictable order
-Visual Expectancy: infants form expectancies for the future based on past experience |
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Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
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-Learning based on contingency relation btwn own behavior and reward/punishment
-ie: Positive Reinforcement |
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Core-Knowledge Theory
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-Infants have innate knowledge in a few important domains: physical world and objects
-others believe that infants possess specialized learning mechanisms that enable them to acquire knowledge rapidly |
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Physical Knowledge
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-Infant knowledge goes beyond that which is learned from objects: Gravity, Physical Support, Solidity/Causal Motion
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Sensation
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-processing of basic info from external world by sensory receptors in sense organs/brain
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Perception
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-process of organizing and interpreting sensory info about objects/events/spatial layout of surrounding world
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Visual Acuity
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-Approaches adult's by 8 months
-full acuity at 6 yrs -Can be estimated by how long infant looks at striped pattern vs grey block |
