Dev Psych Exam 2

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Psychodynamic theory of infant personality

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Freud: oral stage- amount of food- satisfaction with quantity, shapes personality
Erickson: focused on quality of mother's behaviors during feeding and general caregiving. psychosocial conflict

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Psychodynamic theory of toddler personality

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Freud: anal stage- toilet training, need to control impulses
Erickson: Psychosocial conflict of autonomy vs. shame and doubt

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Psychosocial conflict: trust vs. mistrust

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sees trust as the foundation of human development. focuses on quality.

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Trust vs. Mistrust

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sees trust as the foundation of human development
• quality- sensitive, responsive, consistent

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Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

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parents confront assertations of independence. how they handle assertation in multiple domains leads to feelings of autonomy or shame/doubt.
positive resolution- tolerance and understanding
negative resolution- doubts ability

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Emotions as first language

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first 2 years before spoken language

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basic emotions vs. self-conscious emotions

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basic emotions-happiness, interest, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and surprise
conscious emotions-guilt shame embarassment pride

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early smiles versus social smile

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early smiles- physiological reflexive
social smile- response to adult stimulus

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stranger anxiety

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infants and toddlers are wary of strangers but the reaction varies with the infants temperament

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social referencing

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infants actively seek emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation

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emotional self-regulation

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strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can reach our goals

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definition of attachment

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attachment is the strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress.

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attachment behaviors (what they look like)

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• signaling: crying; smiling
• orienting: looking
• attempts at physical contact

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nature of ethological theory of attachment

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views the infant's emotional tie to its mom as an evolved response that promotes survival

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4 steps in the development of attachment

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1. preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks)
2. attachment in the making phase (6 wk-6 months)- responds differently to people but does not protest when separated from caregiver
3. clear cut attachment phase (6/8 to 18/24 months)- separation anxiety, secure base
4. formation of reciprocal relationship (18-24 months)- inner representation of parent-child bond

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separation anxiety

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become upset at the departure of familiar caregiver

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secure base

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use familiar caregiver a a secure base from which they feel comfortable and safe to explore

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internal working model

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inner representation of parent child bond, expectations about availability, support, worthiness of love. reciprocal relationship at 18-24 months.

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Strange Situation

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an observational measure of the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age. Involves short separations from and reunions with parent. reactions give cues about use of parent as secure base. Effectiveness of parents' presence in soothing child upon reunion.

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Secure attachment

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65% of american infants- easily comforted upon reunion. active greeting behavior. secure base, crying immediately reduced when with parent

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Avoidant attachment

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20%- avoidance at reunion, unresponsive to parent when present, not distressed at separation, fail to cling, slow to greet. altogether indifferent.

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resistant attachment

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10-15%- seek closeness to parents, fail to explore. distressed at separation, angry, resistant behavior at reunion; often cannot be easily comforted.

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disorganized/disoriented attachment

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5-10%- confused and contradictory behaviors. reflects greatest insecurity. look away while held, approach with depressed emotion

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caregiving factors predicting secure attachment

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sensitive caregiving- responding promptly, consistently and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully

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caregiving factors predicting insecure attachment

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avoidant- receive overly stimulating, intrusive care.
resistant- receive inconsistent care.
disorganized/disoriented- depressed mothers, look scared, tease baby.
child abuse and neglect are associated with all three forms

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differences in nature of father-infant and mother-infant interactions

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mothers devote more time to physical care and expressing affection, fathers to playful interaction. fathers engage in highly arousing physical play with bursts of excitement.

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understanding infant-father attachment

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attachment classifications are independent, result of particular interaction history

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results of Belsky (1996)

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distal factors- interested in fathers personality, infant temperament and social support. 126 first born sons and dads at 10 months. videotaped strange situation. 60% securely attached. predictors: extroverted, agreeable, pos marriages.

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results of Cox et al. (1992)

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using strange situation- 47% securely attached to fathers. positive interactions, time with infants.

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impact of early attachment on later social and emotional development

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easier to develop good relationship with others
are more curious, sociable and independent preschoolers, better problem solving, higher self esteem, eager to learn new skills, capacity for intimacy in adult relationship

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debate about attachment security and infant day care

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ok if children are in high quality attentive day care for less time opposed to heavy exposure to substandard care.

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temperament - definition

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early appearing, stable individual difference in reactivity and self regulation.
reactivity- quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and motor activity.
self regulation- strategies that modify that reactivity.

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roles of environment & genetics

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toddlers with irritable temperaments who experience patient, supportive parenting are better at managing their reactivity. half of individual difference in personality have been attributed to difference in genetic makeup.

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stability of temperament

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only moderately stable from one age period to the next, it can be modified by experience.

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findings of NYLS

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70% of children classified as difficult based on early behavior developed serious behavior problems

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goodness-of-fit model

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used to describe how temperament and environment can together produce favorable outcomes. goodness of fit involves creating child rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning.

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Easy child

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quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful and adapts easily to new experiences
40%

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difficult child

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is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely
10%

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slow to warm up child

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is inactive, shows mild, low key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood and adjusts slowly to new experiences
15%

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mixture children

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children do not fit any of other categories, show unique blends of temperamental characteristics
35%

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brain development

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age 2-6 brain increases from 70-90% of adult weight. age 4, cerebral cortex has overproduced synapses. as formation of synapses, cell death, myelination and synaptic pruning occur, preschoolers improve in a wide variety of skills-physical coordination, perception, attention, memory, language, logical thinking and imagination.

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handedness

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reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain- often referred to as the individual's dominant cerebral hempisphere- to carry out skilled motor action.

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changing nature of gross and fine motor development

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children less top heavy- center of gravity shifts downward improving balance. age 2- gait becomes smooth--> running
fine- control of hands and fingers improves, do puzzles, dressing/undressing, fork and knife, writing

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Piaget’s pre-operational stage

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preschool thought- age 2-6- lack sophisticated operations

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definition: operations

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mental actions that obey logical rules

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principle achievements:

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developing capacity to represent the external world internally through the use of symbols, growth in pretend play

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make believe

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through pretending, young children practice and strengthen newly acquired representational schemes

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reversibility

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ability to mentally go through a series in a problem then reverse direction returning to the starting point.

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conservation

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certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes.

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Piaget’s 8 limitations of preschool thought

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1. egocentrism
2. reasoning is perception bound
3. thinking characterized by centration
4. touble with reversability
5. tendency to focuz on states rather than transformations
6. not yet attained identity constancy
7. exhibit transductive reasoning
8. difficulty with hierarchical relationship classification

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egocentrism

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inability to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from one's own. 3 mountains problem

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animistic thinking

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belief that inanimate objects have life like qualities, results from egocentrism

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centration

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focusing on one aspect of a stimulus to the neglect of other important features

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identity constancy

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realization that some qualitative characteristics of individuals are permanent, despite changes in outward appearance

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transductive reasoning

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reasoning from one particular event to another particular event, whether or not there is a logical causal relationship.

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hierarchical classification

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the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarity and difference between the groups

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Vygotsky’s perspectives on learning

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children speak to themselves for self guidance, as children get older their self directed speech is internalized as silent, inner speech. private speech rather than egocentric speech

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private speech;

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children's self directed speech

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zone of proximal development

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a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers

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scaffolding

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adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

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language development during preschool years

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learn 10,000 words between 4-6 years. use metaphors and compound words to bridge the gap. treat a new word applied to an already labeled object as a second name for the object.

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fast mapping

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connect new words with their underlying concepts after only a brief encounter

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overregularization

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applying a language rule when it requires an exception to the rule

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mutual exclusivity bias

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they assume that words refer to entirely separate categories.

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psychosocial conflict of preschooler - initiative vs. guilt

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resolved positively through play experiences that foster initiative, and through development of a conscious that is not overly strict. a negative resolution is an overly strict superego, guilt

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nature of early self-concept

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self concept is with specific possessions and actions that they spend much time asserting their rights to objects

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nature of early self-esteem

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have high self esteem- cannot distinguish between their desired and their actual competence, they usually rate their own ability as extremely high and underestimate task difficulty.

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understanding of rules – heteronomous vs. autonomous morality

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rules as unchangeable properties (5-10) to they can create and change the rules

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parallel play

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near but does not try to influence others

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associative play

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exchange of toys and comments

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cooperative play

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oriented towards a common goal.

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sociodramatic play

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joint make believe

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socialization

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process of absorbing the attitudes, values of society, encouraging culturally acceptable behavior, goal of internalization

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power assertive

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relies on parents overwhelming power and control over child and childs fear of punishment. using physical discipline.

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love withdrawal

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relies on child's fear they will lose parent's support.

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inductive reasoning

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reason and explanation to make child realize harmful consequences, tells child how to behave, sympathy

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concerns about negative side effects of physical discipline

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chidren fearful of parents, avoid them.
child less likely to internalize social rules, children initiate aggressive behavior, cycle of abuse. antisocial and aggressive behavior as adult

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authoritative parenting style

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high acceptance, adaptive control techniques, appropriate autonomy granting. most common parenting style, warm, nurturant, accepting, high degree of control

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authoritarian parenting style

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conformity and obedience valued over open communication, heavy use of power assertive discipline

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permissive parenting style

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low control, high acceptance, nurturant, communicative, accepting and affirmative. avoid imposing control of any kind

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uninvolved parenting style

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low control and acceptance, emotionally uninvolved, undemanding and indifferent, inconsistent in setting standards.

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how parenting styles affect developmental outcomes

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authoritative related to better psychological outcomes-children lively, happy and confident, good peer relationships.
authoritarian- anxious and withdrawl
permissive- rebellious, egocentric
uninvolved- drug abuse, delinquency

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proactive/instrumental aggression

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children want an object, privilege or space and in trying to get it, push, shout at, or otherwise attack a person who is in the way.

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reactive/hostile aggression

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meant to hurt another person.

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relational aggression

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damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation

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role of media & family

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- love withdrawal, power assertation, harm punishment and inconsistency are liked to aggression
- boys are more likely than girls to be targest of harsh, inconsistent discipline because they are more active and impulsive and therefore harder to control
- time spent watching tv in childhood and adolescence predicted aggressive behavior in adulthood
- media violence hardens children to aggression

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gender typing

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process of developing roles/gender linked preferences and behaviors valued by larger society

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4 asymmetric trends

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- males more rigid in gender typing
- males more rigid than females in stereotyping
- cross sex behavior more tolerated by girls
-cross sex behavior more tolerated of girls

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gender segregation

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boys and girls separate themselves and are separated. different bathrooms, different types of clothing, different toys, different friends

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gender identity

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knowledge of one being boy or girl; image of oneself as masculine or femenine

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androgyny

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scoring high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics

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sequence of early gender typing

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preverbal associative network, labels, associations, activity preferences, playmate preferences

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preverbal associative network

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developing the sexes

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labels

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age 2- lavel own sex & that of other people- understanding of gender labels accelerate stereotypes

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rigid associations

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toys, jobs, colors, items have an associated gender

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activity and toy preferences

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strong preference for toys with own sex (age 14-22 months)

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playmate preferences

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same sex playmates by age 3- gender segregation is pervasive 3:1 @ age 4, 11:1 by age 6

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multicausal nature of gender role development

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parents, teachers, peers, broader social environment

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gender typing mechanisms: psychoanalytic theory

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id w/ same sex parent, gender typing is persistant, full frontal and the result is shaped by several mechanisms using a number of sources.

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gender typing mechanisms: social cognitive theory

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differential reinforcement of gender, appropriate behaviors and sanctioning of gender in appropriate ones--> usually subtle. a result of observational learning

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gender typing mechanisms: cognitive developmental theory

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as children acquire a deeper understanding of gender, they will want to act in ways consistant with knowledge, self socialization for cognitive consistancy

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gender typing mechanisms: gender schema theory

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establishing of basic gender id. motivates children to learn about gender. experiences and beliefs are organized into schemas and used to interpret the world and guide behavior

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gender constancy

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understanding permanence of one's sex. however children are gender typed before they obtain gender constancy

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different ways parents contribute to gender socialization

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parents have gender bias, have differential reinforcement and treatment, enforce expectations and make verbal comments about them.

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channeling

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process by which parents indirectly encourage adaptation of gender roles by experiences they provide

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peer influences on gender typing; Maccoby (and Jacklin) two cultures

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as boys and girls separate, in group favoritism, more positive evaluations of members of one's own gender becomes another factor that sustains the separate social worlds of boys and girls

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nature of girls’ and boys’ groups

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boys- large, competitive, sports and combat themes,
girls- small, cooperative, family themes

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concerns of Barrie Thorne

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approach is overly simplistic, focuese heavily on differences but ignores similarities. wary of "big man bias" focusing on behaviors that fit expectations. ignores that segregation is far from total

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definition of borderwork and 4 examples

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things children do that cross yet strengthen gender boundaries.
- contests(boys vs. girls)
- cross sex chasing
- rituals of pollution (cooties)
- invasions

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impact of media on gender typing

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seen in TV and acheivments of mens and women, see themselves through a gender biased lens

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obesity

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20% higher than ideal weight, children in the 95%ile for sex and age

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hormonal influences on gender typing

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congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) - disorder with high levels of androgens (testosterone in utero), born with fully or partially masculinized genitalia

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old & recent findings on CAH girls

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old- only interviews, parental bias, often tom boys
new- girls like to play with boy toys and boy activities, no difference in rough play

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environmental forces contributing to rising rates

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FAAT
F- fast food, super sizing
A-advertising for food
A- activity reduction in school
T- television viewing

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role of TV

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american children spend 3-4 hours watching tv, 1500 hours/year, tv is passive, replaces physical activity, exposes to food advertisements, reduction in resting metabolism

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psychological consequences of childhood obesity

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less popular, more socially isolated. obese child least liked among 6 options (latner and stunkard), lower self/body esteem, depressed

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changes in thinking with Concrete Operational stage

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thought becomes more logical, flexible, organized. children show decentration and reversability

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seriation

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ability to order items along a quantitative dimension

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transitivity (transitive inference)

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ability to perform seriation mentally,

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limitations of concrete operational thought

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but not in abstract situations

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roles of culture and schooling

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conservation is delayed without school, what children have been exposed helps or harms them in completing piageten tasks

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3 changes in attention

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- more selective/controlled
-more adaptable
-greater planfulness

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memory strategies

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the deliberate mental activites we use to store and retain information

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+17

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24

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cognitive self regulation

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the process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes and redirecting unsuccessful efforts

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Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities. dismissing the idea of general intelligence

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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

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intelligent behavior involves balancing all three intelligences to achieve success in life according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community

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analytical intelligence

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consists of the information processing components that underlie all intelligent acts: applying strategies, acquiring task relevant and metacognitive knowledge, and engaging in self regulation.

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creative intelligence

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success depends not only on processing familiar information but also on generating useful solutions to new problems.

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practical intelligence

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intelligence is a practical goal oriented activity aimed at adapting to, shaping or selecting environments. intelligent people skillfully adapt their thinking to fit with both their desires and the demands of their everyday worlds.

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Explaining individual and groups differences in IQ

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large ethnic differences, half is nature, half is nurture

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potential biases on IQ tests

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specific information acquired as part of majority culture upbringing. amount of time spent in school affects IQ test

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stereotype threat

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the feat of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance

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dynamics of bilingualism and bilingual education

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second language learning must happen in childhood, bilingualism has positive consequences for development, do better on tests with selective attention, analytical reasoning, concept formation and cognitive flexibility. language awareness

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psychosocial conflict of industry vs. inferiority

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attempt to master many new skills valued by culture. Goal industry= a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks and a willingness to achieve to the best of one's ability. fostered by adults expectations and children's drive toward mastery. come to realize that hard work produces results.

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3 changes in self-concept

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emphasize traits and competencies in self descriptions- use stable psychological dispositions.
-being to make social comparisons
-become better at reading messages received from others and at incorporating these into self descriptions

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2 changes in self-esteem

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self esteem becomes hierarchically structured. (academic, physical, social appearance)
- see changes in level of self esteem

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nature of peer group

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most peer interactions occur in groups. peer group= a group of 2 or more people of similar status who interact with each other and share norms and goals.

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functions of peer group

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sociability and sense of belonging, shape definition of self, help children develop their personal and interpersonal goals. provide opportunities for learning/practicing skills --? cooperation, competition, likeability.

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distributive justice

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how to share

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how friendships change from preschool years to middle childhood

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more selective, friends similar to self
characteristics of friedship become more complex and psychologically based. friendships remain fairly stable over middle childhood.

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5 sociometric categories of peer acceptance

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1. popular- high LM, few LL
2. rejected- actively disliked high LL, few LM
3. controversial- large pos and neg votes
4. neglected- seldom chosen (few LL, few LM)
5. average- no extreme scores

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differences between 2 types of rejected children

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rejected aggressive- high rates of conflict, hostility and inattentive and impulsive behavior.
rejected withdrawn- passive socially awkward, timid, may act like babies.

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negative consequences of rejected status

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short term- poor school attitude and performance
long term- delinquency, school drop out and possibly psychopathology and depression

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Bullying

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instances of intentionally negative actions being directed at a specific person or group of people repeatedly and over time. 15-20% bullied, 10-20% bully

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characteristics of bullies

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highly aggressive, noncompliant in many settings, anti social rule breaking. try to dominate others, have little capacity for empathy

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factors leading to bullying

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parental hostility and lack of warmth, physical abuse, use of power assertive discipline in an erratic fashion, lack of parent supervision

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co-regulation

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a transitional form of supervision in which they exercise general oversight while permitting children to be in charge of moment by moment decision making

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Nature of the impact of divorce on children

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1/2 of divorces involve children, 1/4 of children have divorced parents. children spend 5 years in single parent home

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short-term and long-term effects of divorce

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children react with distress and ager, discipline becomes harsh and inconsistent.
early sexual activity and adolescent parenthood

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role of age at time of divorce

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preschool age blame themselves, older children understand they are not responsible for their parents divorce become unruly and escape into undesirable peer activities.