Culture And Psychology Test 1

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Accessibility Universal

Back 1

The first and highest level of universality, which states that a given cognitive tool exists across cultures, is used to solve the same problem across cultures, and is accessible to the same degree across cultures

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Culture

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1. Any kind of information that isacquired from other members of one’sspecies through social learning that iscapable of affecting an individual’sbehaviour

2. A particular group of individuals whoexist within some kind of sharedcontext

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Abstract

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Abstract definition generally leads to evidence supporting universality

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Concrete

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Concrete definition generally leads to evidence supporting variability.

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The Flynn Effect

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The Flynn effect is the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores measured in many parts of the world from roughly 1930 to the present day

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Conceptual Bias

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The degree to which a theory or set of hypotheses being compared across cultures are equivalent

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Sampling Bias

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The degree to which different samples in different cultures are equivalent to each other.

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Linguistic Bias

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The semantic equivalence between protocols (instruments,instructions, questionnaires, etc.) used in across-cultural comparison study.

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Back-translation

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A method of translating research materials from one language to another whereby a translator translates materials from Language A to Language B and then a different translator translates the materials back from Language B to Language A. The original and twice-translated versions in Language A are then compared so that any discrepancies between them can be resolved

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Decenter

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The concept underlying the procedure of back translation that involves eliminating any culture-specific concepts of the original language or translating them equivalently into the target language.

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Committee approach

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Several bilingual informants collectively translate a research protocol into a target language

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Procedural Bias

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The degree to which the procedures used to collect data indifferent cultures are equivalent to each other

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Measurement Bias

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The degree to which measures used to collect data in different cultures are equally valid and reliable

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Psychometric equivalence

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The degree to which different measures used in a cross-cultural comparison study are statistically equivalent in the cultures being compared

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Factor analysis

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A statistical technique that allows researchers to identify groups of items on a questionnaire. The grouped items are thought to represent mental constructs underlying the responses to the items.

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Structural equivalence

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The degree to which a measure used in a cross cultural study produces the same factor analysis results in the different countries being compared

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Internal reliability

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The degree to which different items in a questionnaire are related to each other, and give consistent responses

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Response bias

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Factors that distort the accuracy of a person’s responses to surveys

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Extremity bias & Moderacy Bias

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Extremity bias Tendency to choose numbers toward the ends of the scale

• Moderacy bias Tendency to choose numbers toward midpoint of scale

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Cultural attribution fallacies

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A mistaken interpretation in cross cultural comparison studies.– Cultural attribution fallacies occur when researchers infer that something cultural produced the differences they observed in their study, despite the fact that they may not be empirically justified in doing so because they did not actually measure those cultural factors

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Enculturation

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The process by which individuals learn and adopt the ways and manners of their specific culture

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Socialization

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The process by which we learn and internalize the rules and patterns of behaviour that are affected by culture. This process, which occurs over a long time, involves learning and mastering societal and cultural norms, attitudes, values, and belief systems.

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Developmental contextualism

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A contemporary theoretical perspective that proposes that the multiple levels of a developing child- ranging from the inner biological, psychological, social relational, and socio-cultural- are inextricably intertwined and function as an integrated system. It stresses that it is the relation between these changing multiple levels that constitute human development.

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Ecological Systems Theory

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Bronfenbrenner's ecological approach to human development.

Proximal: Immediate environment

Distal: Distant environments

Microsystem: The immediate surroundings such as family, school, peer group, with which children directly interact.

Mesosystem: The linkages between microsystems such as between school and family

Macrosystem: culture, religion, society

Chronosystem: The influence of time and history on the other systems.

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Authoritative parenting

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Child centred parenting in which parents try to understand their children's feelings but encourage them to be independent while maintaining controls on their behaviours

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5 domains of socialization

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– protection• learning to develop a sense of security and,eventually, how to regulate their own distress–

control• learning how to live by culturally defined rules–

reciprocity• learning how to cooperate

– guided learning• learning specific skill

s– group participation• learning to participate in social groups and cultural practices

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Secure attachment

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A style of attachment in which infants are described as warm and responsive by their caregiver

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Avoidant attachment

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A style of attachment in which children shun their mothers who are suspected of being intrusive and over stimulating

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Ambivalent attachment

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A style of attachment in which children are uncertain in their response to their mothers, going back and forth between seeking and shunning her attention. These mothers are characterized as insensitive and less involved.

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Adaptive attachment

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Relationships that promote the maximum level of safety for the child within a specific cultural context

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Postfigurative culture

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A culture in which change is slow and socialization occurs primarily by elders transferring their knowledge to their children. Elders hold the knowledge necessary for becoming a successful and competent adult.

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Configurative culture

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A culture in which change occurs rapidly. Both adults and peers socialize young people. Young people may have to turn to one another for advice and information in this kind of culture.

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Prefigurative culture

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A culture that is changing so rapidly that young people may be the ones to teach adults cultural knowledge.

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Accomodation

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The process of changing one's understanding of the world to accommodate ideas that conflict with existing concepts

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Assimilation

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The process of fitting new ideas into a pre-existing understanding of the world

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Piagetian Stages

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• Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Object permanence develops

• Preoperational (2-6): 5 characteristics

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Preoperational Stages

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• Preoperational (2-6): 5 characteristics– conservation An awareness that physical quantities remain the same even when they change shape or appearance.

– centration The tendency to focus on a single aspect of a problem.

– irreversibility The inability to imagine “undoing” a process.

– egocentrism The inability to step into another’s shoes and understand the other person’s point of view.

– animism The belief that all things, including inanimate objects, are alive.

• Concrete Operational (7-11): Master conservation and other tasks

• Formal Operations (11/12 - adulthood): Logical,scientific reasoning

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great divide theory

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Theory of cognitive development that suggests that the thought of Westerners is superior to that of people who live in "primitive" societies.

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Group Entitativity

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The belief that groups are like people in that they have intentions and the ability to plan actions.

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Infrahumanization

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Belief that others lack human qualities

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Autostereotypes and heterosterotypes

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• autostereotypes Stereotypes about your own group

.• heterostereotypes Stereotypes about other groups.

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Contact Hypothesis

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• Contact Hypothesis The proposition that contact between groups is especially effective in reducing prejudice.–

4 optimal conditions:• equal status• common goals• cooperation• support from institutional or social authorities

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Double Jeopardy Hypothesis

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The idea that individuals with 2 or more subordinated social identities eg. black women, experience more discrimination and identity stress than those with one such identity

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Acculturation

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The process by which people migrate to and learn a culture that is different from their original (or heritage) culture

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Acquiescence bias

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A tendency to agree with most statements one encounters.

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Assimilation strategy

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An acculturation strategy that involves an attempt to fit and fully participate in the host culture while making little or no effort to maintain the traditions of one's heritage culture.

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Authoritarian Parenting

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Parenting style that places high demands on children with strict rules, low levels of warmth, and little open dialogue

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Autokinetic effect

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An effect caused by the involuntary saccades of the eyes which in the dark create the illusion of movement

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Autonomy ideal

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A moral principle that young children should sleep alone so they can learn to be self-reliant and take care of themselves

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between groups manipulation

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A type of experimental manipulation in which different groups of participants receive different levels of the independent variables.

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Bicultural identity integration

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The extent to which one's 2 cultural identities are compatible or in opposition to each other

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Blending

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The tendency for bicultural people to manifest psychological tendencies in between those of their 2 cultures

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Color-blind appraoch

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Looking beyond individuals ethnicities or race in an effort to focus on their common human nature

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Contemporary Legends

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Fictional stories told in modern societies as though they are true

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Cultural distance

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the difference between the 2 cultures in their overall ways of life

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culture of honor

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A culture in which people (especially men) strive to protect their reputation through aggression.

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deprivation effect

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The tendency for people to value something more when it is lacking in their culture

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Distal causes

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Initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time and often through indirect relations

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dynamic social impact theory

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A theory suggesting that individuals influence each other through their interactions, which gives rise to clusters of like-minded people separated by geography

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Emulative learning

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A type of social learning focused on the encornmental events involved with a model's behaviour, such as how the use of one object could potentially affect changes in the state of their envrionment

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Encephalization quotient

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The ratio of an animal's brain weight to the brain weight predicted for a comparable animal of the same body size

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Entity theory of self

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A view of the self in which a person's abilities and traits are largely innate features that the individual cannot change

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Essentialized gender

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A gender identity that is believed to reflect an underlying and unchanging nature

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Ethnocentrism

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The tendency to judge people from other cultures by comparing them to the standards of one's own culture.

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Evoked Culture

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the notion that all people, regardless of where they are from, have certain biologically encoded behavioural repertoires that are potentially accessible to them, and that these repertoires are engaged when the appropriate situational conditions arise

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Existential Universal

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The 3rd level of universality which states that a given cognitive tool exists across cultures, although the tool is not necessarily used to solve the same problems across cultures.

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Frame Switching

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The tendency for bicultural people to switch between different cultural selves

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Identity denial

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How a minority group individual's cultural identity may be called into question because he or she does not seem to match the prototype of the culture.

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Imitative Learning

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A type of social learning in which the learner internalizes aspects of the model's goals and behavioural strategies.

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Incremental theory of self

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A view of the self in which a persons abilities and traits are malleable and can be improved.

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Integration strategy

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An acculturation strategy that involves attempts to fit in and fully participate in the host culture while at the same time striving to maintain the traditions of one's heritage culture

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Integrative Complexity

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A willingess and ability to acknowledge and consider different viewpoints of the self

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Marginalization strategy

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An acculturation strategy that involves little or no effort to participate in the host culture or maintain the traditions of the heritage culture

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methodological equivalence

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In cross cultural research, the concern with making sure participants from different cultures understand the research questions or situations in equivalent ways.

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minimially counterintuitive ideas

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Ideas that violate our expectations enough to be considered surprising and unusual but not too outlandish

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Noun bias

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Tendency in young children to have a vocabulary with more nouns relative to the number of verbs and other relational words.

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occams razor

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The principle that any theory should make as few assumptions as possible; it maintains that all else held equal, the simpler theory is more likely to be correct.

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Permissive parenting

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Being very responsive, warm, and involved with one's children, but placing few limits and controls on their behaviours.

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pluarlistic ignorance

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The tendency for people to collectively misinterpret the thoughts that underlie other people's behaviours

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Prestiege Bias

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A tendency to imitate prestigious others more than less-prestigious others- that is those who have the respect and attention of others.

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Proximal causes

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Causes that have direct and immediate relations with their effects

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Ratchet Effect

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The process by which cultural information becomes more complex and often more useful over time because an initial idea can be learned from others and then modified and improved by the learners.

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reference group effect

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A tendency for people to evaluate themselves by comparing themselves by comparing themselves with others from their own culture

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Russian-Culturual historical school

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A school of thought which argued that people interact with their environment through the "tools" or human-made ideas that have been passed down to them through history

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Sacred couple

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A moral principle that married couples should be given their own sleeping space for emotional intimacy and sexual privacy

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Sensitive period

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A period of time in an organisms development that allows for the relatively easy acquisition of a particular set of skills.

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Separation strategy

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An acculturation strategy that involves efforts to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture while making little or no effort to participate in the host culture.

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sitaution sampling

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A method used for comparing cultures with psychological measures. Situations are generated by participants in more than one culture, and then those situations are presented to different groups of participants from multiple cultures. This method allows us to see both

(a) Whether situations common in one culture influence people differently in another culture and

(b) whether people in one culture respond to the same situations differently than those from another culture

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social brain hypothesis

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The theory that the cognitive demands in social living have led to the evolution of large primate brains.

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socially desirable responding

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A response bias in which people's responses are distorted by their motivation to be evaluated positively by others.

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Sojourners

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People who move to a new country and intend to stay there only temporarily

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Subjective self awareness

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A state of mind in which individuals consider themselves from the perspective of the subject and demonstrate little awareness of themselves as an individual

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unpackaging

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Identifying the underlying variables that give rise to different cultural differences

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Within group manipulation

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A type of experimental manipulation in which each participant receives more than one level of the independent variables.