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83 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the three types of logic and reasoning? |
- Induction - Deduction - Adduction |
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What are the six steps to the scientific method? |
1. Observation 2. Collect information or evidence 3. Examine for patterns and associations 4. Hypothesise/theorise (inductive) 5. Test/attempt to disprove 6. Conclude (deductive) |
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What are some of the logic and reasoning problems in the profiling community? |
- Absence of the scientific method - Absence of logic - Absence of critical thinking and analytical logic |
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What did John Thornton consider to be an issue with the profiling community and its use of logic/reasoning? |
“Forensic [examiners] have, for the mostpart, treated induction and deduction rather casually. They have failed to recognisethat induction, not deduction, is the counterpart of hypothesis testing andtheory revision” “They have tended to equate a hypothesiswith a deduction, which it is not. As aconsequence, toooften a hypothesis is declared as a deductive conclusion, when in fact, it is astatement awaiting verification through testing” |
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A statement is inductive when... |
it may be true given the available evidence, but not necessarily |
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What are some common features of inductive reasoning in profiles? |
- Statistical analysis without training - Anecdotal or personal experience - Based on incomplete information - Open to subjective interpretation - Results in generalisations/stereotypes - Sydromatic, not probative - Ignores development of offenders over time - Assumed behaviour - Combines research into one report - Characteristics are probable only - Use of qualifiers - Nothing concrete or specific, often refer to crime by similar experience (e.g. in X murder...) |
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How did Karl Popper identify the problem with inductive reasoning? |
“Now it is far from obvious, from alogical point of view, that we are justified in inferring universal statementsfrom singular ones, no matter how numerous: for any conclusion drawn in thisway may always turn out to be false: no matter how many instances of whiteswans we may have observed, this does not justify the conclusion that all swansare white” (1967) |
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A statement is deductive when... |
it must be true, if the evidence on which it is based is true. Conclusions follow logically. This reasoning process is a direct extension of the scientific method. |
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What are some features of deductive profiling? |
- Discusses the behaviour in this crime - Fully outlines the available physical evidence - Seeks to establish victimology - Seeks to establish crime scene characteristics - Establishes, doesn't assume behaviour - No reliance/reference to research - Minimal to no use of research - Specific to the case at hand, not comparisons to past cases Deduces offender characteristics from a culmination of the above |
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What are the two strands of deductive arguments/reasoning? |
Modus ponens - If P, then Q - P, therefore Q Modus tollens - If P, then Q - Not Q, not P |
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What are suppressed premises? |
Premises that are needed to make the argument true but are not stated. E.g: - Conclusion: No wounds, so not the offender - Suppressed premises: only one offender; not enough time has passed for wounds to heal |
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How does a false deduction occur? |
When the conclusion is not borne out by the evidence, or other alternative explanations are not considered (e.g. suppressed premises). |
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What are some features of adduction/adductive reasoning? |
- Conclusion is assumed or over-simplified - Evidence is filtered to fit the conclusion - Contradictory evidence is ignored - Availability heuristic is a strong influence |
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What does a typical inductive profile consider? What does a typical deductive profile consider? |
Inductive: - typical victims, offenders and crimes Deductive: - this victim, offender and crime |
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What two theories do inductive profules rely upon? |
Behavioural consistency and homology assumption |
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What is behavioural consistency? |
The assumption that the same offender will act consistently between offences |
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What is the homology assumption? |
The assumption that two different offenders will exhibit the same characteristics if there is consistency between their behaviours. E.g. if A does the same as B, then their background characteristics will be the same or similar. |
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Distinguish between trait characteristics and state characteristics |
Trait characteristics - based on homology and consistency - inductive profiles assume that offender crime actions are representative of general traits of the offender, which remain static/don't change. State characteristics are those argued for by deductive profiles, as these profiles do not assume consistency or homology, but rather focuses on how the offender was at the time of the crime. |
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Which two men started criminal profiling in the FBI (Criminal Investigative Analysis)? |
Howard Teten and Pat Mullany |
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Which two men later joined the FBI's criminal profiling divisions? |
Robert Ressler and John Douglas |
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How did Robert Ressler and John Douglas change the FBI's criminal profiling process? |
Dumbed it down - felt the process wasn't friendly to law-enforcement officers, so put the psychology in layman's terms - organised/disorganised
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What is Criminal Investigative Analysis? |
From FBI website: "a process of reviewing crimesfrom both a behaviouraland investigative perspective. Itinvolves reviewing and assessing the facts of a criminal act, interpretingoffender behaviour,and interaction with the victim, as exhibited during the commission of thecrime, or as displayed in the crime scene" |
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What are the features of the FBI study? |
- Interview 36 incarcerated sex offenders - Qualitative objectives - to examine the characteristics of offenders, how crimes were committed and the crime scenes - Conducted 1979-1983 - Consisted of interviews, review of official records, transcripts etc - Only those who volunteered considered |
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What are some of the criticisms of the FBI study? |
- Small sample size - No validation - No consistency (different interviewers etcs) - No analysis of study done (e.g. inter-rater reliability) - Volunteers - many seeking to clear their name - Terminology first appeared before study completed - Agents told what features to look for - confirmation basis |
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What were the two objectives of the FBI study? |
First: to identify whether there are significant behavioural differences at the crime scene between organised sexual murderers and disorganised sexual murderers. Second: to identify variables or specific characteristics useful in profiling sexual murderers. |
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What were the four variables considered by the FBI study? |
- Social environment and formative event - Preoccupation with murder - Antecedent behaviour and the act of murder - Post-offence behaviour |
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What method/line of thinking did the FBI study give rise to? |
The organised/disorganised offender dichotomy - Profiling done by classifying crime scene - Assumed that behaviour at crime scene representative of offender's personality - Offender's personality linked to characteristics which then constitute profile |
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What type of profiling method is CIA? |
Inductive; a trait method of profiling; assumes behavioural consistency and homology. |
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What are features of an organised crime scene? |
- Offence planned - Victim a stranger - Personalises victim - Overall control - Restraints used - Aggressive acts - Body hidden - Evidence absent - Transports body |
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What are features of a disorganised crime scene? |
- Spontaneous offence - Victim or location known - Random and sloppy - Sudden violence - Sexual acts after death - Body, weapon/evidence remain |
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What are some characteristics of an organised offender? |
- Good intelligence - Socially/sexually competent - High birth order - Controlled mood - Alcohol/drugs present - Car in good condition - Follows crime in media - May change behaviour (jobs; leave town) |
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What are some characteristics of a disorganised offender? |
- Average intelligence - Poor work history - Sexually incompetent - Harsh discipline - Father's work unstable - Minimal stress - Lives alone, lives/works in the area - Minimal interest and lifestyle change |
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What are some reasons why an organised crime scene may appear disorganised? |
- Use of substances (drugs, alcohol) - Retaliatory offender - Domestic violence offence - Staged offence - Interrupted offences (Petherick and Turvey, 2008) |
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What typifies FBI/CIA profiles today? |
- Inductive analysis - Reference to 'research' and 'experience' of the BAU - Use of 'we' - Use of qualifiers - Based on research, similar cases (disclaimers that 'no two are the same') |
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What are some of the issues with the FBI/CIA method? |
- Behaviour presented as fact without informed reconstruction - Untested generalisations/theories presented as conclusions - Incomplete investigative findings take root, become entrenched forensic opinions in court - Subject to bias, experience and training - Profiles frequently show adductive or confirmatory analysis |
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What does IP stand for? |
Investigative Psychology |
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What is Investigative Psychology? (defined) |
IP is defined as "the application of psychological principles to all aspects of the analysis, investigation and prosecution of crime" |
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What is the approach adopted by IP? |
A statistical (inductive, nomothetic - applying norms, group study) approach. |
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What are some of the issues with an IP report/profile? |
- Combines all research on one crime type into one report - Criminal behaviour assumed, not established - Assumes research is valid/representative - Includes probable offender characteristics - Full of qualifiers - Nothing concrete/certain, nothing specific to this case (focus on probability) |
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Which significant figure led the way in the use of IP? |
David Canter |
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In what area does David Canter work; and what was his biggest case? |
Works in Investigative Psychology Worked on the John Duffy profile (railway rapist/murderer) - apparently correct on 13 out of 17 points/characteristics. |
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What does David Canter say about the IP approach? |
"Investigative Psychology introduces a scientific and systematic basis to previously subjective approaches to all aspects of the detection, investigation and prosecution of crimes" |
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What is narrative theory? |
An element of IP: based on the way in which we live our lives according to scripts, which help us make sense of the world - our inner narratives dictate the way in which we deal with people/situations.
- Applicable to criminal profiling: how do criminals operate? |
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What are the five factors of behaviour between offender and victim? |
- interpersonal coherence - significance of time and place - criminal characteristics - criminal career - forensic awareness |
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What are the ideas behind interpersonal coherence (five-factor model)? |
Refers to the way in which people adopt a style of behaviour when dealing with others, and assumes criminal behaviour will largely be a reflection of non-criminal behaviour (general lives) - Victims may represent something significant to offenders, e.g. Ted Bundy - look like ex-gf |
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What are the ideas behind criminal characteristics (five-factor model)? |
This distinguishes between different types of crime, and allows investigators to establish the 'type' of offender they are looking at (and figure out characteristics/profile accordingly). E.g. Canter's analysis of sexual assault - victim as an object, vehicle or person |
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What are the ideas behind criminal career (five-factor model)? |
Criminals will operate in a generally consistent way, but will also learn and adapt. Past criminal history is important in determining many facets of an offender - criminal skill might indicate previous offences. How good was the offender at the crime? |
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What are the ideas behind forensic awareness (five-factor model)? |
The prevention or removal of evidence, such as DNA or fingerprints, may imply knowledge of police techniques - experience in prison or with previous investigations. May also indicate a level of intelligence and planning. |
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What are the ideas behind the significance of time and place (five-factor model)? |
Draws on environmental psychology - there will be a significance between the crime scene and the offender's life - home in relation to offence areas; gives an insight into the offender's mental map. The timing of offences also gives insight into offender's routine, e.g. on the weekend would indicate regular working hours. |
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What is the marauder vs commuter typologies and how do they help profiling/investigations? |
Based on environmental psychology principles - marauder will go out from home base, offend in surrounding area; commuter will travel to new area, offend, and then return home. These assist in developing a priority area in searching for the offender. |
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What are some of the features of Investigative Psychology in profiling? |
- IP is based on scientific principles, not 'intuition' or 'experience' - Logical and practical application of psychology to investigation of crime - Aims to provide police with a way that they can narrow a suspect pool or guide an investigation - Professional standard maintained - peer review, membership of professional bodies |
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What is multi-dimensional scaling? |
A process which represents variables in a physical space. It is useful for testing hypothesis and developing theories, but contains a subjective element of interpretation. Output = smaller space analysis |
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What are the two types of aggression (Feshbach, 1964)? |
Hostile aggression - a desire for a noxious outcome (fantasy etc) Instrumental aggression - done for some reason other than injury, such as to shut the person up |
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What are some of the criticisms of IP/multi-dimensional scaling? |
- Too much emphasis on statistics - Limited to the standard and quantity of the data - Language often unintelligible to the layperson - Not applicable to all crimes/situations - Assumes general stats representative of this crime type and this offence - Motivation for individual behaviours assumed - Appearance of science through statistics |
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Who is the significant figure in Behavioural Evidence Analysis (BEA)? |
Brent Turvey |
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What is Behavioural Evidence? |
Behavioural evidence is any physical, documentary or testimonial evidence that helps establish whether, when or how an action has taken place.
- E.g. blood can tell you there was altercation resulting in injury |
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What does BEA involve? |
BEA is an ideo-deductive method of crime scene analysis and criminal profiling (concerned with single case study). Examines crime scene, interprets physical evidence, victimology, crime scene characteristics. Attempts to determine characteristics in the individual case which can point to offenders. Deductive - inferences and conclusions based on logic, scientific method. |
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What are the two phases of BEA? |
- Investigative phase: the use of criminal profiling during the actual investigation - assist in identifying the unknown offender for the known crime - Trial phase: the use of criminal profile during the trial - to assist in linking the known offender for the known crime (interview tips etc). |
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Does BEA rely on trait or state determinations? Nomothetic or ideographic? |
BEA relies on state determinations - characteristics of offender are representative of offender at the time of the offence only. Ideographic, in that it is concerned with the study of individuals or individual cases. |
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What are the four phases of BEA? |
- Crime analysis (the activity involved in crime) - Victimology (aspects of victim) - Crime scene characteristics {draw these three together - recognise and assess behavioural patterns} - Offender characteristics (profile) |
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What is the purpose of forensic analysis (particularly in BEA)? |
- Maximise exploitation of physical evidence - to accurately inform the reconstruction. - Ensure full collection, maximise quality for legal purposes - Aid reconstruction - Assess physical evidence that is available and what is not available, why not - Not relying on others for interpretations |
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What is involved in the victimology stage of BEA? |
A thorough study of all aspects of the available victim information - including personal characteristics (age, sex, height etc); background information (lifestyle, habits) |
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What are Victim Lifestyle Exposure and Victim Incident Exposure? |
Victim Lifestyle Exposure - the general risk by virtue of who the victim is and what they do (static - personality, employment, sex) Victim Incident Exposure - the specific risk at the time of the crime (dynamic - alcohol, mood, location) |
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What does an analysis of the crime scene characteristics (BEA) involve? |
- Determining certain aspects of the crime scene, such as where victim was encountered, dumped, or whether it was the primary or secondary crime scene. - Leads to further evidence (e.g. at other crime scenes - disposal site?) |
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What does an analysis of the offender characteristics (BEA) involve? |
This analysis involves informing about the likely physical, behavioural and personality characteristics of the offender. Informs on motivations, offender competency (experience) etc. Steps: 1. Define characteristic 2. See if it is included in crime scene/behaviour reconstruction 3. If yes - then argue/include |
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What are some deductive offender characteristics? |
- Criminal skill - Knowledge of the victim - Knowledge of the crime scene - Knowledge of methods and materials - Motive (these are traditionally what you can establish from physical evidence) By contrast, age, for e.g., can be difficult - because influenced by maturity, development etc |
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What are some of the principles (hypotheses) of BEA? |
- Principle of uniqueness (individuals develop uniquely over time - no two people exactly alike) - Principle of separation (unique constellations of associations re pleasure, pain, taste, distaste) - Principle of behavioural dynamics (offence-related behaviour is not static, can evolve/devolve over time) - Principle of behavioural motivation (all behaviour has underlying causes/origins) - Principle of multidetermination (offence-related behaviour is complex, multidetermined) - Principle of motivational dynamics (individual offender capable of multiple motives over multiple offences or singe offence) - Principle of Behavioural Variance (different offenders do similar things for different reasons) - Principle of Unintended Consequences (not all results of behaviour are intended) - Principle of Memory Corruption (witness statements inherently unreliable) - Principle of Reliability (results of examinations only as reliable on evidence on which they are based) |
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What are some of the criticisms of Behavioural Evidence Analysis? |
- Based on amount of evidence available in this case - no evidence, no conclusions - Personality issues w/ Turvey - not well liked - Turvey spends a lot of time criticising others' work - Judicial decisions regarding evidence |
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What are the key principles of geographic behaviour? |
- Centre of gravity theory - The environment an offender lives in shapes their behaviour (e.g. might not cross major landmarks such as rivers or highways) - Invasion dominance and succession - Distance decay - Least effort principle |
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What occurs in the theory of invasion dominance and succession? |
Some people from the 'bad side of town' move to good - invasion, good moves out as more bad move over, eventually succession occurs when bad outnumber good, become dominant |
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What is the least effort principle and distance decay? |
The least effort principle says that the further an offender travels from their home, the less offences they will commit. Based in principles of economy of movement - do not go further than necessary to do something (shopping; commit an offence). Decay is similar - as the offender commits more offences, the later offences will be closer to their home base - gets bolder, better know the environment around you. |
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What is the core idea behind geographical profiling? |
That crimes are generally committed in areas relating to the offender's home, or environments with which the offender is familiar. In an evenly distributed urban environment the offender's home will be in the middle of the offences. |
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What do Brantingham & Brantingham (1982) say in relation to geographical profiling? |
People's spatial behaviour is governed by familiarity and effort. Familiarity gained through everyday activities; criminal behaviour expected to mirror non-offending spatial behaviour. * As such, the places the offender frequents when not offending will have a bearing on areas used to offend (centre of gravity approach) |
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What theory did Stuart Kind come up with? In which case? |
Kind proposed the 'centre of gravity' theory during the Yorkshire Ripper investigation to guide the area police should focus on. 'Pin each offence - the position in the middle, joining each offence with the least amount of string, is the centre' - worked, in that he did live in the area pinpointed, but caught by chance. |
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What geographical profiling theory did David Canter propose? |
The 'Circle Theory' - identify the two crime locations furthest from each other. A circle can be drawn that includes all offences. The hypothesis is that the criminal will be found to live inside that circle, possibly close to the middle of it (marauder - contrast to commuter). |
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What are the two typologies of offenders for geographical profiling? |
Marauder (home base, go out into area surrounding home base, offend, travel back) and commuter (lives in different geographical area, travel to new area to commit offences, travel back) |
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What is Criminal Geographical Targeting? |
"By 'inverting' research that has focused on relating crime places to offender residences, the locations of a series of crimes can be used to determine where an offender might reside" (Rossmo, 2000)
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Who is the key figure in geographical profiling? |
Kim Rossmo |
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How does Criminal Geographical Targeting break offenders into hunting styles? |
- Searching type (hunter, poacher, troller, trapper) - Attack style (raptor, stalker, ambusher) - Target backcloth (opportunity) Hunting style effects spatial distribution - tells the profilers how close together or separate offences, data might be. |
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What is 'Dragnet'? |
David Canter's Geographical Profiling program |
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Which recent cases have raised concerns about the utility of geoprofiling? |
The Washington Sniper - lived in a car, so homeless/moved around Derrick Todd Lee - Godwin said 40% chance lived inside circle. Actually lived outside - so according to probability, correct, but not useful. |
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What are some of the criticisms of geographic profiling? |
- Takes a single element (location of offence/s) and interprets it out of context - Employed without a full criminal profile (or profiler has done one themselves unqualified) - Cannot distinguish between two offenders in the same area - Assumes linkage between offences - Assumes home base near crime sites - Technology impressive, but doesn't appear to differ from human analysis - expensive (simple heuristics were enough to give humans same accuracy as computer) - Relies on accurate data - Size and demographics of an area can be a limitation |
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Do the geographic profiling theories (circle theory; distance decay etc) appear to be accurate? Why? Any caution? |
Yes - do appear to have merit, as when humans were given heuristics based on these theories their average error distance in estimating the offender's home location decreased.
However caution is required as error was still apparent, and in some cases can be significant (due to high pop. density for eg) |
