Psychology Super Review 1 Conditioning And Learning

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Learning

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Defined as a relative permanent change in our nervous system and behavior as a result of experience, practice, or both.

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Conditioning

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The process of forming associations.

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Classical conditioning always involves

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A reflexive or respondent behavior. This means that classical conditioning produces an automatic response to a stimulus.

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Classical or respondent conditioning

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Occurs when a neutral stimulus that does not trigger a reflexive behavior is conditioned so that it will elicit an automatic response. Conditioning occurs because the neutral stimulus has been associated with a stimulus that automatically triggers a response.

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Ivan Pavlov

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Classically conditioned dogs using the salivary reflex.

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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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The stimulus that automatically produces a reflex.

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Unconditioned Response (UCR)

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An automatic response to the UCS; a natural response that does not require conditioning for it to occur

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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A neutral stimulus that does not normally elicit an automatic response; only after pairing it repeatedly with the UCS, does the CS come to elicit a conditioned response.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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The learned response that occurs when the CS is presented alone, without the UCS.

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Standard Classical conditioning paradigm is

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UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation)

CS (bell) + UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation)

CS alone (bell alone) -> CR (salivation)

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Forward pairing

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CS presented before UCS

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Backward pairing

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CS presented after UCS

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Simultaneous pairing

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CS and UCS occur at exactly the same time.

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extinction

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The process of eliminating the conditioned response (CR) by no longer pairing the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

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Reconditioning

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Occurs after extinction has taken place and the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are again paired.

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Stimulus generalization

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Occurs when a conditioned response occurs to a stimulus that only resembles or is similar to the conditioned stimulus but is not identical to it.

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Stimulus discrimination

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Occurs when the differences between stimuli are noticed and, thus, the stimuli are not responded to in similar ways.

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Phobias

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(intense, irrational fears) may develop as a result of classical conditioning.

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Higher order conditioning

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Occurs when a new neutral stimulus is associated with a conditioned stimulus and eventually comes to produce the conditioned response.

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Operant or instrumental conditioning

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Responses are learned because of their consequences. Unlike classical conditioning, the responses learned in operant/instrumental conditioning are voluntary.

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Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect

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States that a behavior that is rewarded tends to be repeated, while behavior that is not rewarded takes place only at random. What is learned during operant or instrumental conditioning is that certain responses are instrumental in producing desired effects in the environment.

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Reinforcers

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Consequences for behavior and can be anything that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Reinforcers can be positive or negative. Both positive and negative reinforcers have the potential to increase behaviors. Reinforcers can also be primary or secondary.

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Positive reinforcers

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Are rewards or other positive consequences that follow behaviors and increase the likelihood that the behaviors will occur again in the future.

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Negative reinforcers

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Are anything a subject will work to avoid or terminate.

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Escape conditioning

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Occurs when a subject learns that a particular response will terminate an aversive stimulus.

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Avoidance conditioning

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Occurs when a subject responds to a signal in a way that prevents exposure to an aversive stimulus.

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Primary reinforcers

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Are necessary to meet biological needs and include such things as food, water, air, etc.

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Secondary reinforcers

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Have acquired value and are not necessary for survival.

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Extinction in operant conditioning

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The goal is the same as it is in classical conditioning, to decrease or eliminate a response. Extinction occurs in operant conditioning by removing the reinforcer.

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Continuous schedule of reinforcement

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When reinforcement happens when each and every response is reinforced (100 percent of the time).

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Intermittent or partial schedule of reinforcement

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Behaviors that are not reinforced each time they occur are on these types of schedules.

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Fixed ratio schedule

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Intermittent schedule of reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses.

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Variable ratio schedule

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Intermittent schedule of reinforcement given after a variable number of responses.

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Fixed interval schedule

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Intermittent schedule of reinforcement given after the first response after a given amount of time has elapsed.

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Variable interval schedule

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Intermittent schedule of reinforcement given after the first response after a varying amount of time has elapsed.

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In general, the ratio schedules produce ______ response rates than the interval schedules.

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Higher

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Shaping

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Involves systematically reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

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Discriminative stimuli

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Serve as cues that indicate a response is likely to be reinforced.

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Punishment

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The goal of punishment is to decrease behavior.

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This is very important for punishment to be effective - the sooner the punishment is delivered after the undesired behavior occurred, the better the learning.

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Timing

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Observational learning

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Occurs when we learn new behaviors by watching others. This is sometimes called social learning, vicarious conditioning, or modeling.

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Observational learning is guided by these four processes

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Attention, Retention, Reproduction of Action, and Motivation.

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Attention

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Attention must be paid to the salient features of another's actions

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Retention

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Observed behaviors must be remembered in order to be carried out.

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Reproduction of Action

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We must be able to carry out the behavior that we observed.

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Motivation

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There must be some reason for carrying out the behavior.

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Vicarious learning

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Occurs when we learn the relationship between a response and its consequences by watching others.

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Vicarious reinforcement

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Occurs when we observe the model receiving reinforcement.

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Vicarious punishment

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Happens when we observe the model being punished for engaging in a behavior.

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Latent learning

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Is learning that is not demonstrated at the time that it occurs.