College Biology

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________ _____ hasinternal membranes that partition the cell into organelles

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Eukaryotic cell

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__________ usethe information from the DNA to make proteins

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Ribosomes

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What does the nuclearenvelope do?

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enclosesthe nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm

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Shape of nucleus is maintained ______ _____ whichis composed of proteins.

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nuclearlamina

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DNA is organized into discreteunits called

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Chromosomes

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The DNA and proteins of chromosomesare together called

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chromatin

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________ is located within the nucleus andis the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis

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NucleolusRibosomes:

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Ribosomes:

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complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein

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Ribosomescarry out protein synthesis in two locations:

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In the cytosol (free ribosomes)

On the outside of the endoplasmicreticulum or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

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Endoplasmicreticulum (ER)

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accountsfor more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells

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Twodistinct regions of ER:

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Smooth ER:lacks ribosomes

Rough ER:surface is studded with ribosomes

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Rough ER:

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Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins(proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)

Distributes transportvesicles,secretory proteins surrounded by membranes

Is a membrane factory for the cell

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Smooth ER:

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Synthesizes lipids

Metabolizes carbohydrates

Detoxifies drugs and poisons

Stores calcium ions

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Golgiapparatus:

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Modifies products of the ER

Manufactures certain macromolecules

Sorts and packages materials intotransport vesicles

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Lysosome

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membranoussac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules

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phagocytosis

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engulf another cell.

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Vacuoles

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arelarge vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi apparatus

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Foodvacuoles

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Formed by phagocytosis

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Contractilevacuoles

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Centralvacuoles, pumpexcess water out of cells

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Centralvacuoles,

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holdorganic compounds and water

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Mitochondria

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sitesof cellular respiration, a metabolic process that uses oxygen togenerate ATP

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Chloroplaststructure:

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Thylakoids:membranoussacs, stacked to form a granum

Stroma:theinternal fluid

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Peroxisomes:

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specialized metabolic compartmentsbounded by a single membrane

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Cytoskeleton

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networkof fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm

Itorganizes the cell’s structures and activities,anchors organelles, helps support cell, maintains cell shape, and interactswith proteins to produce motility

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Threemain types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton:

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Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediatefilaments

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Microtubules;

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Largest

Shapes cell

Guides movement of organelles

Separates Chromosomes

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Microfilaments

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Smallest

beartension, resisting pulling forces within the cell

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Intermediate filaments

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Medium size

Support cell shape and fix organelles

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Phospholipids

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amphipathic molecules, containing hydrophobicand hydrophilic regions

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Sixmajor functions of membrane proteins:

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Transport

Enzymatic activity

Signal transduction

Cell-cell recognition

Intercellular joining

Attachment to the cytoskeleton andextracellular matrix (ECM)

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Tonicity

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abilityof a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

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Isotonicsolution

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soluteconcentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasmamembrane

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Hypertonicsolution

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soluteconcentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water

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Hypotonicsolution

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soluteconcentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water

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Turgid, Flaccid, plasmolysis

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Firm, limp, shriveled

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Facilitateddiffusion

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transportproteins speed the passive movement of molecules across membrane; includechannel proteins and carrier proteins

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Ionchannels

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facilitate the diffusion of ions (someion channels called gated channels,open or close in response to a stimulus)

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Active Transport

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movessubstances against their concentration gradients

requiresenergy, usually in the form of ATP

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Membranepotential:

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voltagedifference across a membrane

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Metabolism:

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all of organism's chemical reactions

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Metabolicpathway:

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beginswith a specific molecule and ends with a product; each step is catalyzed by aspecific enzyme

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Catabolicpathways:

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releaseenergy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds (ex. cellular respiration)

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Anabolicpathways

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consumeenergy to build complex molecules from simpler ones (ex. Synthesis of protein from amino acids)

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Exergonicreaction:

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proceedswith a net release of free energy and is spontaneous

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Endergonicreaction:

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absorbsfree energy from its surroundings and is non-spontaneous

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celldoes three main kinds of work:

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Chemical

Transport

Mechanical

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energycoupling

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theuse of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

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ATP(adenosine triphosphate)

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cell’s energy shuttle

composedof ribose (a sugar), adenine(a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups

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Catalyst

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chemicalagent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction

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Enzyme

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catalyticprotein

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substrate

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Thereactant that an enzyme acts on

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enzyme-substrate complex

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coenzyme

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organiccofactor

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Thebreakdown of organic molecules is ______

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Exergonic

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Fermentation:

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partialdegradation of sugars that occurs without O2

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Aerobicrespiration:

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Cellularrespiration consumesorganic molecules and O2and yields ATP

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Cellularrespiration

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includesboth aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to aerobicrespiration

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C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP +heat)

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Cellular respiration

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§redoxreactions

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Chemical reactions that transferelectrons between reactants

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Oxidation

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substanceloses electrons; is oxidized

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Reduction

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substancegains electrons; is reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced)

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Theelectron donor is called the _______ _____

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reducing agent

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Theelectron receptor is called the ______ _____

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oxidizing agent

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Three stages of harvesting energy from glucose

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Glycolosis

Citric acid

oxidative phosphorylation

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Glycolysis:

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breaks down glucose into two molecules ofpyruvate

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Citricacid cycle:

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: completes the breakdown of glucose;also called Krebs cycle in honor of Hans Krebs (1930s)

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Oxidativephosphorylation

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accounts for most of the ATPsynthesis; powered by redox reactions

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________ ________accountsfor almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular respiration

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Oxidativephosphorylation

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substrate-level phosphorylation

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Asmaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

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Two main types of Frementation

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Alcohol frementation

Lactic acid fermentation

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Alcoholfermentation:

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pyruvateconverted toethanol in two steps;first stepreleases CO2

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Lacticacid fermentation:

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Stomatapyruvatereduced by NADH; forms lactate as end product, no release of CO2

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Stomata

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pores in a leaf

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Stroma

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Dense fluid surrounding the chloroplast

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Chlorophyll

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thepigment which gives leaves their green color, resides in the thylakoidmembranes

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6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

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Photosynthesis

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Light Reactions

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Split H2O

Release O2

Reduce the electron acceptor NADP+to NADPH

Generate ATP from ADP by photophosphorylation

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Calvin Cycle

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Forms sugar from CO2,

begins with carbon fixation

puts CO2 into organic molecules

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Photons

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Lightalso behaves as though it consists of discrete particles

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Spectrophotometer:

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§measuresa pigment’s ability to absorb various wavelengths; sends light through pigments and measuresthe fraction of light transmitted at each wavelength

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Actionspectrum:

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showsthe relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving aprocess