Cognitive Science Midterm Ii

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study of nervous system anatomy and physiology in humans and other species

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neuroscience

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studies structures and processes underlying cognitive function; neural mechanisms underlying pattern recognition, attention, memory etc

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cognitive neuroscience

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studies effects of accidental or deliberate nervous system damage

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cognitive neuropsychology

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two types of studies used in cognitive neuroscience

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case studies and lesion studies

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two ways to measure brain's electrical activity

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single-cell recording, multiple-unit recording

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electrode inserted in or adjacent to a neuron

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single-cell recording

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larger electrode (or set of electrodes) measures activity of a group of neurons

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multiple-unit recording

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electrodes are placed on the scalp and measure the gross electrical activity of the entire brain

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electroencephalogram

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EEG has __ spatial resolution and __ temporal resolution

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bad; good

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x-rays passed through the brain from different perspectives used to construct 2-D and 3-D images

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computer axial tomography (CAT)

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radioactively tagged glucose molecules used to measure which brains areas are most active

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positron emission tomography

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soft tissue structure measure by the alignment of protons within a powerful magnet

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magnetic resonance imaging

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shows changes in brain activity over time using a blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal that shows differential activation across the brain by differences in a colour gradient

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functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

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measures changes in small magnetic fields that occur when neurons fire; has much better temporal resolution than fMRI

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magnetoencephalography (MEG)

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in this technique neurons are electrically stimulated and the resulting behaviour is studied

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electrical stimulation techniques

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electrical current is passed through a part of the brain causing neurons to fire and thus causing temporary lesions

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transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

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an inability to recognize a visual object

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visual agnosia

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two categories of visual agnosias

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apperceptive and associative

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difficulty in assembling the pieces of features of an object together into a meaningful whole

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apperceptive agnosia

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can perceive a whole object but have difficulty naming or assigning a label to it

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associative agnosia

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patients have difficulty recognizing faces

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prosopagnosia

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damage to the __ area in the __ lobe causes prosopagnosia

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fusiform face area; temporal lobe

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disorders of attention are caused by damage to the __

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right superior temporal gyrus

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inability to attend to the left side of the body and the environment

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hemispatial neglect

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Karl Lashley searched for the __

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engram

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physical location of a memory

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engram

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progressively destroyed larger areas of monkey brain tissue after training them on a task

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Karl Lashley

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in Lashley's experiements, after damage, monkeys __ the memory

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retained the memory

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results of Lashley's studies suggest that?

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memories are distributed to many parts of the brain

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memories are distributed to many parts of the brain

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equipotentiality

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equipotentiality is the opposite of ___

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modularity

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change in the nervous system caused by some event that in turn causes a change in behaviour

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learning

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change in the structure or biochemistry of a synapse

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synaptic plasticity

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neurons that fire together wire together

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Hebb learning

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the basic idea that if two neurons are always firing together there will be a strong positive correlation between them

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Hebb learning

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brain structure responsible for consolidation, the transfer of information from STM to LTM

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hippocampus

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damage to the hippocampus causes __ __

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anterograde amnesia

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inability to retain new information after damage

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anterograde amnesia

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difficulty remembering information learned prior to brain damage

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retrograde amnesia

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area for storage of verbal material

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posterior parietal cortex in left hemisphere

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area for rehearsal of verbal material

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prefrontal cortex (Broca's area)

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area for storage of spatial information

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posterior parietal cortex in right hemisphere

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area for maintenance of spatial information

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dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

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semantic memory is linked to __ cortex

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limbic

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episodic memory is consolidated in the __

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hippocampus

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procedural memory is associated __ __ and __ cortex

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basal ganglia and motor cortex

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different parts of the brain process each of the different types of features of an object, how do we recognize them all as one object?

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the perceptual binding problem

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difficulty starting and stopping behaviours as well as difficulty with problem solving is typical of those with __ damage

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frontal lobe damage

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an inability to stop an action once started

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psychological inertia

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impelled to engage in a behaviour triggered by a stimulus

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environmental dependency syndrome

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cognitive operations used in problem solving; includes planning, sequencing of behaviour and goal attainment

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executive function

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processes that do not require conscious control and is triggered by environmental stimuli

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automatic attentional processes

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processes that require conscious control and responds to novel or difficult situations

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controlled attentional processes

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action schemas are activated by stimuli or other schemas and produce a behaviour

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Norman-Shallice model

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in the Norman-Shallice model, action schemas are like __

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scripts

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works well for routine familiar tasks

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Norman-Shallice model

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system well suited for new or difficult problem solving situations in which there is no known solution

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supervisory attentional system (SAS)

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more general flexible strategies that can be applied to any problem situation; monitors schemas and can suppress or turn off inappropriate ones; located in left anterior frontal lobe

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supervisory attentional system (SAS)

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alternate model of executive function that has three levels

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Stuss and Benson model

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three theories of executive function

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Normal-Shallice model, Supervisory Attentional System (SAS), Stuss and Benson

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in Stuss and Benson, the lowest level governs __

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automatic responses

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the location of the lowest level in the Stuss and Benson model is in

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the posterior brain areas

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in intermediate supervisory level in Stuss and Benson runs __ __ and __ __

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executive processes and solves problems

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the local of the intermediate supervisory level in Stuss and Benson is in the

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frontal lobe

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the highest level in the Stuss and Benson is metacognitive and __ and __ any aspect of cognition

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monitors and regulates

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the location of the metacognitive level in the Stuss and Benson is in the

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prefrontal cortex

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computer simulations of how groups of neurons might perform some task

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artificial neural networks (ANNs)

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neural networks use __ __ processing

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parallel distributed

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large number of computing units perform their calculations simultaneously

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parallel processing

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like traditional computers; performing one operation at a time

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serial processing

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two approaches to problem solving in cognition and AI

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knowledge-based approach; behaviour-based approach

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uses an algorithm in which every processing step is planned; relies on symbols and operators applied to symbols

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knowledge-based approach

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let the ANN perform the computation on its own; concerned with the behaviour of the network

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behaviour-based approach

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two types of knowledge representations

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distributed representation; local representation

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information exists as a pattern over collection of nodes; concept is a pattern of activated nodes

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distributed representation

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a basic computing unit (kind of like a neuron)

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a node

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information is stored in a single node and concept is just one node on

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local representation

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a connection between two nodes

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link

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specifies the strength of a connection

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weight

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two types of link

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excitatory and inhibitory

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a node fires if it receives activation above __

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threshold

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simple networks that could detect and recognize visual patterns

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perceptrons

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perceptrons only have two layers

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an input and an output layer

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associate some set of input patterns with corresponding set of output patterns

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pattern association

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three steps in processing a pattern

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(1) activate pattern on input units; (2) compute the output pattern for each node; (3) apply activation function

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net input =

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summatin of activation j times the weight form node i to node j

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the change in the weight to nodei from nodej

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Hebb rule

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according to Hebb, two types of cell groupings

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cell assembly, phase sequence

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small group of neurons that repeatedly stimulate themselves

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cell assembly

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set of cell assemblies that activate each other

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phase sequence

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often use Hebbian-style learning; one fully interconnected set of units; learns a set of patterns then present partial (or noisy) patterns, completes pattern

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auto-associative networks

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does not require a teacher

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Hebbian learning

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nicely biologically plausible but limited in power

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Hebbian learning

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contains three layers of nodes: input, hidden and output

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backpropogation networks

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order of units in backpropogation networks

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input units --> hidden units --> output units

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these units allow input to be recoded

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hidden units

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these units allow for more complex computations

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hidden units

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has a supervised learning algorithm that acts as a teacher

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backpropogation learning algorithm

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not very biologically plausible but powerful learning tool

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backpropogation network

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the most basic type of backpropogation network

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feed-forward networks

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learning is a

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change in the weights between nodes

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in __ networks, a learning algorithm sends an error signal back through the network to change weights between nodes

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backpropogation

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feed-forward networks send activation __

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forward only

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in __ networks, activation flows back and forth between layers

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recurrent networks

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these networks cycle through time

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recurrent networks

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in these networks, how the information is processed depends on what was just processed

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recurrent networks

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networks settle over time

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attractor dynamics

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over time, output pattern cleans up

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attractor dynamics

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one unit with a weight to itself

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one-dimensional space attractor dynamics

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four disadvantages of connectionism

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no massive parallelism, convergent dynamic, stability-plasticity dilemma, catastrophic interference

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four advantages of connectionism

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biological plausibility, graceful degradation, interference, generalization