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93 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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biases |
- ways in which your mind is slanted to believed something or another, seeing reality incorrectly |
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anchoring bias |
- what you compare to when you evaluate (Ex. restaurants put an expensive item on the menu (anchor) to make the others look reasonable) |
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bandwagon effect and herd instinct |
- believing something because everyone around you believes the same thing, avoiding social conflict |
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confirmation bias |
- only accepting, seeking out, interpreting and remembering things that support your views while nothing that disproves it, prejudice |
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contract effect/context effect - distinction bias |
- observing two things at once makes you focus on their differences - things appear MORE different when viewed simultaneously (Ex. twins - hard to tell apart when not standing directly beside each other) |
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endowment effect/loss aversion |
- finding an object more valuable (endowment effect) and afraid to lose it (loss aversion) once you own it |
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hostile media effect |
- believing the news is hostile to your political views because you only notice when they say things that do not align with your views |
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temporal discounting |
- valuing the future less than now (Ex. asking for favours - your future time is “more abundant” in your mind, so you agree to things you wouldn't in the present) increases in chaotic environments - take advantage of things now, future is unknown |
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moral credential effect |
- thinking of yourself as having acted morally to justify you behaving badly (Ex. dieting - “I worked out today so I earned this cake”, risk compensation - remove risk and decrease carefulness) |
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negativity bias |
- people pay more attention to negative information, possibly more important in evolutionary history (Ex. the more negatively focused news programs are the more important it is) |
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omission bias |
- thinking doing harm is worse than not doing something that causes equal harm |
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outcome bias |
- judging a decision based on what ended up happening rather than on the information available at decision making time, (Ex. had a bad time at a party and you feel that you shouldn’t have gone in the first place - blaming yourself on the outcome when that was not a rational line of thought before you had gone) |
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planning fallacy |
- underestimating how long it will take to complete a task, makes it easy to overbook ourselves, unexpected things happen that make this difficult |
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wishful thinking |
- believing something because you want it to be true/it will make you happy (Ex. not wanting to believe criticism about yourself, believing the innocence of someone you care about) |
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availability heuristic |
- judging things to be common or probable because they are easily brought to memory. problem because this is easier for vivid and emotional things (Ex. news shows only murders, think murders are more common) |
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base rate neglect |
- not taking into account the base rate |
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belief bias |
- tendency to think an argument is correct if you believe it’s conclusion |
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conjunction fallacy |
- tend to think conjunctions are more common than other not so prominent or noticeable combinations (Ex. what is more common, a person who wears birkenstocks or a hippy who wears birkenstocks?) |
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gambler’s fallacy |
- thinking that the probability of a repeating pattern is less likely than a random one (Ex. “HTHHT”, “TTTTT”, “HHHHH” all have the same probability) |
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pareidolia, clustering illusion, illusory correlation |
- seeing patterns and illusions where they are not there (Ex. faces in rock formations) |
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primacy and recency effects |
- remembering the beginnings and ends better than other parts of something |
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just world phenomenon |
- think the world is an ultimately just place, look for reasons to blame victims of inexplicable injustices (what goes around comes around) |
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actor-observer bias |
- the tendency to explain behavior of others in terms of stable traits and your own actions in terms of reactions to the situation (Ex. you can drive recklessly because you’re late, but when someone else does it they’re overreacting) |
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risk compensation |
- believing that certain elements being implemented is an excuse for more risks to be taken (Ex. seatbelts make you feel safer but drive more recklessly, dietary supplements make people eat more poorly and exercise less) |
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perception: |
transforms things in the environment to internal representations processes by which agents interpret and organize sensation to produce an experience of the world, turning information from one form into new representations |
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action: |
turning desire into physical changes in the environment |
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disembodied software |
(no robot attached to it) - action is a display on the screen as an output, perception from user input is the updated in the database |
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distributed cognition (a group of cognitive systems working on the same task) |
- action is the things that the actuators and body are going that affect the world, perception is done by a combination of sensors and sensory organs (Ex. consists of people and objects/environment; construction worker using a blueprint to make a house/the materials and house) |
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the manipulation of representations |
- something standing in or representing something else (Ex. making assumptions with inference or assumptions for something that could happen) |
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sensory memory |
- can be overwritten every few seconds by new perceptions |
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short term memory |
- temporary store, some things end up being long term memory |
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long term memory implicit: directly applied to tasks declarative: facts |
probably stored forever, might have trouble with retrieval implicit knowledge - an unexplainable knowledge due to previous experiences that unconsciously aids in tasks done procedural knowledge - muscle memory, unconsciously exercised in the performance of tasks (Ex. knowing you can run up a flight of stairs without having to think about it) semantic memory - general world knowledge, can’t trace back to how you know it (Ex. knowing what a cat is) episodic memory - memory of experiences and specific events, what’s happened to you (Ex. petting a cat) |
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working memory |
- things shuttled from long term memory used to solve kinds of problems |
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learning bias |
- changing memory with the purpose of preparing the mind for better action in the future |
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habituation bias |
- decreased behavioral response with repeated stimulation Ex. at first jumping at the sound of a loud noise but when repeated not being as startled |
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sensitization bias |
- amplified behavioral response by repeated exposure to a stimulus Ex. barely feeling the vibration of your phone in your pocket initially, but eventually becoming aware and sensitive to it |
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classical conditioning bias |
- learning to associate two previously unrelated stimuli/perceptions, learn to behave similarly to stimulus B as to stimulus A, may be learned over long periods of time or instantly Ex. a dog trained to salivate at the sound of a bell after hearing a bell each time that it eats, feeling nauseated and developing a dislike for a food after trying it for the first time and getting sick |
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operant conditioning bias |
- making a behavior more or less likely to happen in the presence of a stimulus depending on reward, punishment or taking away a reward or aversive stimulus positive = present, negative = remove, reinforce = make more likely, punish = make less likely |
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practice bias |
- doing something repeatedly and learning to do it better, uses reinforcement and punishment to hone the skill play is a theorized form of practice (chasing, fighting, caretaking) motor skills gets easier because of automatization - fast, unconscious and automatic |
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imprinting bias |
- time sensitive, insensitive to behavioral outcomes Ex. geese learning who is mother is happens 13-16 hours after hatching |
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observational learning bias |
- observing another individual do something much of cultural learning (enculturation) is observational, but some is explicitly taught |
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testimony bias |
- someone tells you something and you believe it * Ex. listening to a lecture is testimony based learning |
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learning at the sociological level: |
changes in cultural environment reinforced behaviors that improved survival rates, learning as a society Ex. Fijian Food Taboos - in Fiji certain target foods are not culturally accepted for pregnant women to consume necessary because certain group behavior phenomena are difficult to explain with individual psychology (Ex. a group on strike) |
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learning at the physiological level: |
the behavioral level, a response to a stimulus, observational conditioning Ex. an individual noticing that eating a certain food (Ex. fish) makes people sick necessary because some behaviors are not heavily influenced by their social context, and because a place for non-causal, statistical models is needed |
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learning at the cognitive level: |
theoretical identities in the head, information processing (informational entities - intentions, memory, emotions) the mind fires informational processing rules (“productions”), when something good or bad happens the productions used to get to that state of affairs are made more or less likely in the future (Ex. see a blue fish and are hungry, eat it, blue fish tastes good = strengthened production) necessary because sometimes the psychological level explanation of certain behaviors is too vague (Ex. how to do multiplication, recognize faces) also necessary because mental states and recesses are functionally defined (functionalism) - described in terms of how they work in the mind, over what they are made of physically/anatomically (Ex. two people being happy even though their brain states are quite different) |
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learning at the biological level: |
involved synaptic changes synapses - the spaces between neurons where communication happens, become more efficient with repeated use neurons that fire together, wire together - how associations are learned Ex. neurons representing the concept of poison, others a certain fish, those neurons may co-activate in the future necessary because sometimes the biological structure influences behavior in ways that the information processing perspective cannot explain (Ex. number/colour synaesthesia) and because certain brain structures appear to be used for particular things (Ex. hippocampus and short term memory |
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learning at the chemical level: |
happens in part because of synaptic changes Ex. synaptic changes in taste receptors to tolerate bitter foods, children often get sick eating bitter foods that adults enjoy necessary because chemicals can affect behavior (Ex. drug effects) and because physics doesn’t tell us much about human behavior |
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learning at the physical level: |
no explanation for this type of learning yet the legitimacy of a level is apparent if causal predictions using the ontology (a set of things said to exist) to that level can be made |
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proximate and ultimate descriptions in cognitive science: |
proximate explanation: we eat because it satisfies our hunger and food tastes good ultimate explanation: we eat because we need nutrition |
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the mind is not a computer, it is a.... |
a computer program |
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functionalism |
- mental states and processes are determined by their functional properties (Ex. what they do) rather than by their physical properties (Ex. anatomy) other people, other animals, extraterrestrials, computer programs, distributed cognitive systems |
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cognitive science studies: |
- the study of minds and thinking, especially at the information processing level, applies methodologies from multiple disciplines to multiple problems from those disciplines |
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psychology: |
using experimentation to explore and study the mind subject matter: natural minds (mind created through biological development), mostly humans, interested in cognitive functioning even when erroneous (mistaken) |
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philosophy: |
using rigorous thinking and writing to try to solve problems thought experiments, conceptual analysis, argumentation (making an argument)theorizing from evidence subject matter: big questions, what concepts mean |
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computer science: |
* subject matter: how mental processes can work on machines (AI mostly), how computers can effectively interact with humans
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linguistics: |
study of language, human spoken or signed natural language (not written, computer, or animal languages) uses sounds analysis, grammar correction, corpus analysis |
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neuroscience (cognitive neuroscience): |
* neuroimaging, single-cell recording, anatomical observation, computer modeling (Ex. models of neurons), pharmaceutical effects (drugs effects on the brain), genetic analysis (how the structure of one’s brain is affected by genetics
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education: |
how people learn, how we can design education to help the effectivity naturalistic observation of case studies, empirical studies |
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cognitive anthropology: |
uses anthropological methods to try to understand how people think, includes archeology, utilizes fieldwork, qualitative study, ethnographic observation and interviewing studies social organization, human culture, enculturation, culture change and transmission, shared knowledge, distributed cognition, situated cognition |
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forgetting curves |
- the best time to look back and test yourself on it is the moment before you’re about to forget it |
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working definition of learning disabilities (LD): |
unexpected academic unachievement; affects psychological processes; associated with dysfunction of the brain; present since birth; not primarily explained by cultural, psychological, psychiatric factors or lack of educational opportunity; no academic improvement after intervention |
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how researching helps guide psychologists in making their diagnostic statements regarding LD: |
standardized cognitive academic tests - scores show signs of possible disabilities overall intelligence having discrepancies with academic achievement could be a sign of a LD |
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pattern of strengths and weaknesses: |
essential features: average to above-average intelligence a specific academic weakness a specific cognitive processing weakness a meaningful relationship between cognitive deficit and academic deficit |
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addressing LD related academic challenges: |
learning strategies: making learning more efficient (Ex. time management, better note taking, practice tests) metacognition: the ability to deliberately monitor and regulate one’s knowledge, processes and cognitive and affective states self regulating learning - planning, monitoring, testing, revisiting, when learning and reading affective states is managing emotions cognitive stats is managing internal and external distractions technological comprehension strategies: assistive technology (Ex. text-to-speech, speech-to-text, note taking, mind mapping) |
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law in cognitive science: sequential lineups, false memory, case-based reasoning (CBR) |
sequential lineups, false memory, case-based reasoning (CBR: an artificial intelligence paradigm that reasons based on things that have happened before, uses case, keywords or principals as a query, successful for help desks) |
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medicine and AI in cognitive science: |
* diagnosis, medical information retrieval, image recognition and interpretation
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human computer interaction (HCI) in cognitive science: |
usefulness: how effective the computer/software is at what it is supposed to do usability: how easily the software is used learnability: how easily the software can be learned |
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consumer behavior: behavioural economics in cognitive science: |
flaws in the homo economicus assumption shown by psychology and cognitive science influence Ex. buying a larger house with a larger commute instead a smaller house with a smaller commute because it seems rational, does not take into account habituation of space and how you get used to a smaller house but not to a longer commute |
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AI in cognitive science: |
* Ex. Watson playing Jeopardy, AI (Deep Blue from IBM) playing chess, art made from AI, Turing Test and the Loebner Competition
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visual analytics in cognitive science: |
creating interactive computer interfaces which help analysts understand data through visualization, scientists don’t understand what is happening so the machine gives that clarity (comes from a basis for ignorance not understanding) |
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robotics in cognitive science: |
cognitive robots - Ex. little dog robot, big dog root, wildcat robot, snake robot tree climber/swimmer non-cognitive robots - Ex. Theo Jansen’s kinetic sculptures |
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iconic memory |
- Ex. a grey screen between 2 flashing images, time in which the grey screen plays is enough time for your iconic memory to forget the previous image |
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ventral and dorsal streams: |
dorsal stream (top of your brain) - “where” pathway associated with motion of objects, controls the eyes and arms when visual information is used ventral stream (bottom of your brain): “what” pathway associated with form recognition and object representation, associated with storage of long term memory |
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pandemonium model of perception: template matching perception: neural network perception: |
... |
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vision |
intromission theory - rays of light reflected from objects into the eyes rods (light sensitive photoreceptor cells) and cones (colour sensitive cells) in the retina depth perception: size (how big things are), perspective (things smaller on the fovea as they recede), occlusion (overlapping objects), texture, shading, saturation (closer things more saturated, texture gradients), focus, multiple images (motion and binocular vision) |
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audition (hearing): |
soundwaves vibrate the eardrum, localization done by examining differences between sounds in two ears echolocation: biosonar - send out sound, determine spatial info from echo |
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haptics |
(touch): critical manipulation of objects in combination with proprioception sensors in the skin, movement is required to identify objects active perception: using the body to actively perceive the world through interaction (haptics, vision) |
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olfaction |
(smell): detection of chemicals, much of what we taste is actually smell smell for animal communication (including human): Ex. dogs mark territory, ant pheromone traces, fertility, ovulation, immune system similarities (smelly t-shirt studies) |
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gustation |
(taste): chemical receptors detects flavours such as salty, sour, bitter, umami, sweet pain receptors react to spicy foods experience of food is complex - involves feeling, temperature, taste, smell and pain |
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kinesthesia, proprioception, vestibular system: |
knowing where your body parts are while stationary, sensors are in the inner ear and muscles phantom limbs motion sickness and the vestibular system |
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introception: |
perception of hunger, need for digestion, elimination, heart rate, need to sneeze, breath, cough, etc. |
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optical illusions:
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show us how we see, the assumptions that our brain makes |
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analogy |
- reasoning about corresponding parts of things |
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steps of analogy: |
RMTAES retrieval - using cultural or physical similarities within memories to make the analogy with mapping - finding correspondences/connections between elements of the two analogues, what your mind does to make sense of analogies being able to make distant analogies is a mark of creativity (Ex. mapping between a face and car = easy, mapping between a car and catholicism = hard/need of creativity) structure mapping - what’s being mapped isn’t as important as the connections being made, based on structure not what is compared Ex. connections in love stories between Romeo and Juliet and West Side Story, not specific characters transfer/adaptation - using and changing knowledge of one analogy to learn or invent something about the other, adapting to what makes sense contextually to understand it better analogical transfer - transferring over ideas from one thing to another base to target transfer - transferring knowledge from the base to the target to better understand Ex. adaptation/transfers in science - adaptations made between gears and ether to justify James Clerk Maxwell’s theory about magnetic fields, transfers of knowledge of friction evaluation - judging/determining if the transfer did what you wanted/makes sense, might go back and make different choices in previous steps storage - indexing the new memory to be used successfully in the future, further analogies can be made and connected to later in life, building analogies on analogies |
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metaphor |
- giving a thing a name that belongs to something else, x=y, the detection and creation of patterns |
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primary scene correlation-based metaphor spatial metaphor |
* connections made from new metaphors with other analogies that are related
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big names in the analogy world: |
Genter, Forbus, Hofstadter |
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language is:
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a set of symbols that can be arranged in certain ways, a complex code (not including animal communication) by which agents communicate information |
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natural language artificial language computer language |
natural language - created by human cultures, used naturally, naturally occurring (not invented, came through interactions over time) artificial language - created by individuals/small teams, intended to mimic natural language (Ex. Elvish, Dothraki, Klingon) computer language - communication with computers, artificial, lacking in ambiguity, specifically ways to tell computers what to do through instructions (Ex. code) |
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animal communication (zoosemiotics): |
gesture, expression, gaze following, vocalization, olfactory communication, colouration function: dominance, courtship, ownership, food alert, alarm, metacommunication Ex. honeybee dance, purposeful vervet monkey communication through voluntary alarm calls |
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human language: |
has an implicit structure (unable to articulate certain conventions that always exist), rules about what kinds of sounds and letter combinations are allowed knowledge to speak is implicit, we all know how to do it but now how we do it |
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linguistic disciplines: phonology morphology syntax semantics logic - how you should reason pragmatics |
linguistic disciplines: phonology - how sounds are organized and used in language morphology - how sounds and meaning interact in words (Ex. putting a made up word into past tense following common conventions) syntax - how words are put together in sentences in a language (Ex. proper: the big bear, improper: the bear big), parsing semantics - meaning in language (Ex. different interpretations of a sentence - “every lobster has one shell”) logic - how you should reason: a formal, normative system of reasoning symbolic logic: specifies ways that sentences can be represented unambiguously limited in its semantics pragmatics - how sentences interact with content to change meaning (Ex. “how are you?”, “do you have the time?”), interacting with culture |
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intra-brain communication: “mentalese” |
“mentalese” - the notion that our mind has its own language of thought, put forward by Jerry Fodor, proved by you having trouble expressing your internal language with natural language, controversial |
