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115 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Memory as a top down process-rely on general knowledge, schema expectations, bias, context.
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rely on top down processes to rememeber, can aid memory but can also lead to distortions-false memories-write down word doctor after listening to a list of health related words
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adaptive nature of memory
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highly functional system. the same cognitive processes that help us remember accurately and efficiently can also lead to errors. invoke schemas/generaliztion of memory, reconstruct knowledge based on prior experiences
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Mechanisms of Forgetting: failure to encode or process deeply
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pennies-failure to encode every deeply or process deeply enough- memory is not a camera
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repression
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motivated forgetting or changes in perspective, we dont want to remeber what it felt like
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deliberate lying and deception
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lie to say that you dont remember to do something
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Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve
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passage of time causes wekanening and loss of info. rapid decrease in how much is remembered then evens out
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Interference: Encoding Specificity Principle
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match between encoding and retrieved context aids memory best
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Blocking
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a lot of other info activated that intereferes
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Proactive Interference
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forget recently learned info due to previously learned info
AB 1st learn juice-flight AC later learn juice-zipper test-say flight, memory for AC impaired bc of memory for AB -earlier list remembered over nnew list due to stuff we learn early on being prominent. the stronger the eearly learned info is the stronger the proactive intereference is. |
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Retroactive Intereference
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forget earlier learned info due to newer associations. the stronger the initial learning is the less retroactive
-memory for ab impaired bc of memory for ac |
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eyewitness misinformation effect
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-example of retroactive interference
-cat was at stop sign, told it was yield sign-misinformation can be embedded in qs. 59% of the tim eppl say they saw yield sign. misinformation intereferes with initial learning |
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is info overwritten (lost) or is it an accessibility problem
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-info is not lost, just not accessed-source monitoring error
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memory errors and distortions can occur during
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encoding (biases in perceptions and comprehension-retelling a story changes it each time) and retrieval (the act of remembering changes what is remembered)
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Source Monitoring
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ppl inaccurately tell you where your memory came from. who said something? where did you see it? inaccurately stating where memory came from.
confusion between external sources and between external and internal sources external source-saw, heard, read, person a, person b? external vs internal-perceived or imagined? inferred? self generated? |
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Johnsons Framework*
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heuristic judgement processes-features of memories
systematic judgement processes- reasoning ( have you actually met person),plausibility (dreamt) |
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comprehension-influence of schemas on memory
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remembering what makes sense is better remembered then what does not make sense. comprehension and memory effected by evoking appropiate schema and context
-"the procedure is quite simple"laundry clothes story, helps you remember more, invoking schemas will help u sbetter remeber but they can also introduce false memories -"if the balloons popped" see pic and better remember what was in passage. |
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remembering is more consistent with expectations
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cultural expectations shape what is remembered in "war of the ghosts"-errors that ppl make make sense, predictable errors due to schemas and expectations
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better remebered meaning/gist rather than verbatim
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Sachs research on sentence retention:
read:The boy hit the girl remember: the girl was hit by the boy over the girl hit the boy. remember the first sentence bc we remeber the meaning. extracting generality |
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remembering inferences*
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automatically draw inferences-mis remember as if they actually happened.
spy and fire story-doesnt actually say that he burned the letter. stereoptype guides memory -fireman vs absent minded prof forgetting carol harris vs. hellen keller Brewer & Theyens study:unattentional memory ttask-asked to remeber what was in room. intrude into memory schema-conistent objects that werent really there, soo schemas can aid but also falsify. |
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Remebering based on similarity: Related (Association Effects)
Underwood |
continuous recognition test (endless stream of words)if give words that are associated to earlier ones you can get person to say that that word was on the list before.
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Deese/Roediger &McDermott
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false recall and recognition of thematically related words. words which trigger patterns, list of words which converge on common words-dcotor
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Mather, Henkel & Johnson
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source misattributions in DRM paradigm, something semantically similar leads to making errors.
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Verbal Overshadowing:interpetation of amibigious stimuli based on label
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eyeglasses-0-0-dumbell
verbal label distorts original image. given label of eyeglasses more likley to draw eyeglasses without label more likley to draw what it really looks like. |
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Schooler
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verbalization hurts memory for faces, colors, wine tastes. more liikley to remember face that is not described. better remeber visual memory
-with colors label is not as rich as visual detail. -wine tasters-describe flavor of wine-verbal labels worse at describing *memory involves top down constructive and reconstructive processes. this can enhance accurate memory but also leads to predictable errors. |
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fault eyewitness testimony
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leading cause of proven wrongful convictions, ronal cotton, racial componnent, 2-10,000 wrongfully convicted
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Center of Wrongful convictions
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-86 defendents sentenced to death but later legally exonerated, eyewitness testimony played a role in more then half (46 cases) and was the only evidenc ein more tghen 1/3 of defendents)
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Thomas Brewster
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1984, sketch artist works with victims to develop pic of killer. brewster appears in lineup a few times and is not recognized as a positive identification, but 11 yrs later identified as a murderer, repeated exposure to face convinces her that he is the killer.
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factors during encoding
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expectations/stereotypes, attentional processes, memory and emotion
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expectations
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influence perceptions and encoding. cultural, past experiences, personal prejudices, context
-top down processing-dont see exactly what was there. |
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Focus of Attention-weapon focus effect
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whatever weapon is involved incrime is what ppl focus their attention on. gun becomes like a maget. memory for central and peripheral aspects of crime is impoverished due to focus-cant remeber persons face due to focus on weapon
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violence and stress
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more violence and stress the worse the memory will be. a little arousal will increase memory
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stress activation in brain
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amygdala-emotional processing (raw emotion)
hippocampus-consolidation of memorys STM-LTM overactivated by stress related hormones frontal lobes-trying to deal wit hemotions an dmake decisions |
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ppl who see violent ending in moving have
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worse memory for previous detai lin movie. when theer ismore violence we also overestimate amount of time it takes for something to happen.
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Vivideness and confidence
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vivideness and confidence are not strongly correlated with accuracy (.25) can be incredibly confident and completely wrong, correlation weakr under more stressful and violent situations
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flashbulb memories
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first memory when you remeber very emotional ,arousing ness
6 pieces of info-place, interrupted event, person givnig news, own feelings, emotions in others, aftermath |
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memories more vidi and long lasting but not neccessarily
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more accurate. flashbulb memories are just more rehearsed and shared with other ppl.
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post event information
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misinformation effect (retroactive intereference)
stop sign no mentioning=35%, mentioning=75% correct information can reinforce memory, isinformation can distort memory |
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Mugshots
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example of poor source monitoring. innocent bystanders becom efamiliar faces and thought to be guilty, keep seeing ppl in lineups and they becom emore familiar. unconscious transfer of pieces from one memory into another memory
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own race bias
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ppl bias towards own race and will better identify someone from their own race, aka cross race bias
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pressure to identify suspect
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police reinforce identification
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biased lineup
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misinformation better convinced and more pursuasive by authorities
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recovered memories of abuse
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"false memories" implanted through therapy (drugs, social pressure in support groups, imagery, dreamwork
-cases of children in daycare centers (suggestive questioning/authority) but memories can be forgotten even for horriable cases. -vivid memories for abduction of aliens, past life, butno evidence to suggest that these things actually happened. |
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techniques to improve memory
cognitive processes |
attention (explicity remember based o nselective attentio, divided attention impairs memory), depth of processing(how deeply semantically processed), encoding specificty, rehearsal (maintenanc rehearsal-repition or elaboration)
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goals in remembering
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different types of strategies for remembering specifics vs generalizations
facts? concepts? experience? semantic? episodic? procedural? |
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general strategies
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pay attention(encode it) make it meaningful, organize knowledge, practice th einfo, practive retrieving (method of expanding retrieval-want to remeber it over a long period of time)
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total time hypothesis, speacing effects
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craming=bad, tests consolidta elearning, enhance learning, act of retrieving has a great effect on learning-changes neural structires and enhances memory
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Extreal Memory Aids/Prosepctive Memory Aid
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object associated wit htask to be remebered to do something, better memory when objects are directly connected to what needs to be remembered
-prospective memory aid-writing down info-tissue to shut off car lights |
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organizational menemoics
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chunking, outlines-contect of lengthy chapter, hierarchy-deepr understanding, first letter techniques, retrieval cues that are built in are very powerful
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keyword method
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links between words in foreign countries for vocabularly
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method of locci
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remeber series of places, remeber things along a visual route, mentally walk along path
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Multimodel approach
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use of visual and audtory
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Imagery
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mental imagery make sthings concrete.
bizareness/distintciveness (moldy bread)can sometimes help you to remeber it better, but can sometimes backfire and just cause you to remeber it as something weird |
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increase in motivation, interest, amount of involvement and time as a result helps you improve memory
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you will be paying attention, creating distinctive memory traces and develop effective retrieval cues
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explicit memory
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episodic and semantic, available to conscious recollection, measured with direct measures (recognition and recall taks)
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implicit memory
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things happen in environment that shape what we do. ppl are influence by past experience without any awareness they are remembering, memories that are not available to conscious recollection, measured indirectly (use word they had seen earlier, but not consciou of having remebered, biased to fill in word that you previoulsy saw
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sunconscious perceptual processing
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when our thoughts, feelings, beliefs and behaviors are influenced by stimuli we do not relaized we PERCEIVED
such as subliminal perception, blindsight, mere exposure effect |
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implicit memory
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when our thoughts, feelings, belief and behaviors are influenced by things we do not realize we REMEMBER (may have been consciously or unconsciously perceived)
disconnect between when you first learned something and when we use it. no conscious recollection. -unsual words in conversations, ppl are primed to use words and increases availability of word |
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savings during relearning-Ebbinghaus
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trials i nwhich criteria is to remember a list of nonsense letters, waits until no explicit memory and relearns letters, takes him les tril sto relearn memory-->savings in relearning-suggesting something is implicity learned, structure in brain change. improvement due to residue of implicit memory
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Repitition Priming Effects
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priming=when processing of a stimulus is facilitated by previous exposure to that same stimuli, does not require explicit memory of that stimulus.
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Lexical Decision Tasks
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word can be flashed subliminally, response time is faster when asked is this a word if stimulus was just flashed. readily activated in brain and has reliable effects.
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Word Identification/Perceptual Identification
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faster and more accurate in identfying blurry or degraded word if previously saw word, word presented blurry process facilitated with repitition priming
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Word Stem, word fragment completion, anagrams
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people ten dto complete words wit ghpreviously given words, though they do not explicitly remeber those words
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free asscoaition and categopry exemplar tasks
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peolpe think of word in response to cue wehn word was previously given
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evidence between distinction between explicit and implicit Memory:Dissociations
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***dissociations between what is remebered explicitly and given on implicit memory measures find no correlation between word recognition and those words used on fragment completion=stachastic independence
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Differential effects of manipulation on implicit and explicit measures- functional independence
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LOP, generation effect, picture superiority effect, divided attention
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LOP
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explicit-deep>shallow
implicit-deep=shallow (remember words regardless of LOP) greater depth boosts explicit but not implisit memory |
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Generation Effect
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explicit-generated>saw
implicit-generated<saw (what drives implicit memory is having experienced the item-need to see, not priming effect if just in head) -generation boosts memory for explicit but decreases memory for implicit |
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Picture Superiority Effect
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explicit-pix>words
implicit-pix<words -pix have better explicit memory but words have better implicit retention |
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Divided Attention
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Explicit-full>divided
Implicit-full=divided -divided attention impairs explicit but not implicit memory |
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Dissociations in Amnesiacs
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1)Amnesiacs with MTL/hippomapal damage can learn new motor and cognitive skills (implicit memory) but cannot remember new episodes (explicit), no new episodic memories but procedural intact
2)amnesiacs show similar priming effects to normals despite lack of explicit memory. implicit memory is evolutionary an older system-evidence supports that animals do not need to be consciou sof memories to be shaped by them. makes sense evolutionarily- need a system that allow you to pick up on your environment. |
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theoretical perspective`
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**multiple systems account (Squires-different parts of the brain) vs. processing accounts (transfer apropiate processing-relates to encoding specificty principle, biased towards visual stimuli)
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Implicit Learning
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learning without neccessarily intending to and without being aware that learning has occured or what has been learned
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examples of implicit learning
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-tv name characters (motivated and interested)
-rules of english laguage-cant articulate rules -driving shift stick -chopsticks -contact lenses |
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Hebb digit taks
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-repeating digit string is learned despite lack of explicit awareness, rememeber string more after more trials-string keeps showing up that we remember
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learning and conditioning without awareness
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classical and operant conditioning, behavior modification, occurs in other non humans animals, not conscious
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Learning Complex Rules or Patterns
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people get faster at responsing to location of stimulus without any awareness taht the stimulus follows a complex pattern
**Matrix Learing Task-indicate quadrant-time it takes to find quadrant, previous spot indicates where it will be on next quadrant, implicity learn rule for target quadrant, cant tell you what rule is. |
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Artificial
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LanguagesRebers 1967 work in which subjects learn behavior (rules of language) without a verbalizable knowledge about the behavior or rules
-one group grammatical strings (grammatical group picks up hidden rules of language even though they did not know what they were learning) -one groups random strings |
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typically move from explicit awarenees to implicit "know how" as you learn a skill
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cognitive skills-solving physics probkems, playing chess
motor skills-rideing a bicycle, hopping, tying shoe percetual skills-how to read an x-ray or trees |
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how experts differ from novices (*expertise in textbook)
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-increased perception and memory within domain
-knowledge base is broader -quicker and more accurate-rely on automatization -representation and problem solving strategies differ. understand correct way rto represent problem. experts represent on structural, principle basis, whhile novices represent on a shaollow level -expertise is domain sepcific-does not generalize |
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chess experts (chase & erickson)
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at a brief glance experts remember 16 or more pieces compared to novices wh oremember only 4, but this only applys when the chess pieces are arranged in a meaningful way, when they are set up randomly there is no difference ebwteen experts and novices. experts learn to chunck.
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Size
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huge amounts of info about meaning, facts, functions, categories and concepts (knowledge of representation
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function
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learn from experience and store and use info
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pattersn of retrieval tell us that information is organized
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categorically and hierarchically around meaning, concepts and categories
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Categorial
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people are quicker if primed by category name then by feature. something yellow that flies (slower) something flys that is yellow (faster) fly is priming by category while yellow is priming by feature
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Semantic Associations
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on free-association tasks, ten dto think of semantic, meaningful associations, predictable responses organized around meaningful semantic relationships (doctor/nurse, cat/dog belong together)
semantic association networks-interconected networks follow predictable patterns, cues provided for additional search |
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CLuster/hieararchy
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at retrieval ppl organize categorically in meaningful clusters, hierarachicaly
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Speed of retrieval
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sentence verification (sentence true or false)/lexical decision tasks (is word a real word)
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typicality Effect
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sentence verification is faster when itemis a typical member of a category then when it is an unsual member. fastor for parrot-bird then penguin-bird
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category size effect (fan effect)
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faster when item is a member of a small category then when item is member of large category (animal, household pet-faster)
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semantic priming effects
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faster when primed by a semanticaly meaningful word then unrelated word, similar to repitition processing, quicker when making descions when see a meaninful association before it.
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rapid no response
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rapidly say no to unrelated things, make fast decisions about unrelated things. not an exhaustve search
Is petunia a rock? NO Is goat a dog? No, but these things are similar so it takes a little longer to say no. |
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Feature Comparison Model
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concepts are stored in memory according to a list of features or attributes, semantic memory is a collection of lists,
List Organization: priority ranking, with most defining features higher up on list. Defining Features (essential) Bird-wings, fly, beak Characteristic Features (common, frequent but not essential) Bird-eyes, lungs. A bird has these characteristics but they do not distinguish a bird from other animals |
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Two Stage Decision process
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overall assessment of similarity of lists (if very similar,(typicality effect) quickly say yes, if dissimailr (rapid no response) quickly say no) if intermediate level of similarity takes time for the need to more closely examine features.
-accounts for typcality effect and rapid no response, but concepts/categories are not simply about neccessary and sufficent features (limitation of model) |
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Network Models of Semantic Memory
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Semantic memory is a network of nodes and connecting pathways
-nodes are connected by links, different kinda of links, distance-some links are stronger then others -Spreading activation-fixed amount, dissipated wit htime and distance) mental juice-farther away takes more time, weaker asscoaitions farther awar tweety-canary (fast) tweety-breath (slower) -accounts for typicality effect, fan effect, semantic priming, but not rapid no. |
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Connectionist Models/Neural Networks (PDP)
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Units (nodes) and connections arranged in a patterned configuration, a network
-parallel processing: activation strengthens connections(activation of concepts) -info is distributed (pattern of activity) -info is content adressable (different qs get to info in different ways and different routes) -make spontaneous generalizations based on default assignments-inferences, generalizations lead to frming of stereotypes) -graceful degredation (partial activation-can come up with general info -modeled after brain architecture, broader then just categories |
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Categories
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class of objects that belong together
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concepts
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mental representation of a category
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advantages
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cognitive economy(store masses of info
) informativeness, represents regularities in environment (dogs dont get what to eat or what not to eat) |
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Classical View
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defining categroies in terms of neccessary and suffficent features works well for shapes, fruits, dogs, does not work well for game, bachelor or pornography
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Rosch Prototype Approach
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levels of categories: superordinate, basic level, subordinate
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superordinate
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super general, little info, abstract
-animal, tool, insturmnet |
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Basic Level
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maximum level of informative, dont give broad catagories or too much detail. th ebasic level is the level used for communicating, special status in cognition because we also think at this level
-cat, hammer, piano |
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subordinate
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too specific
-tabby, grandpiano |
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Special Status
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basic level has special status (used in naming, appears earlier in language development, priming, more attr8ibutes in common, brain activity) best trade-off between informativeness and # of distinctions
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Graded structure
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graded based on most representative (prototypical) members to nonprototypical members. decide category membership by comapring to prototype
-accounts for typicality effect and semantic priming effect |
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prototype
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most common or vivid instance (exemplar) or abstracted central tendency of a category
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processing advantage of prototypes
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-produced earlier when listing, quicker verification of membership, rate of learning faster, more likley to be primed by catagory name, reference point
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Posner et. al Study 1967
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Remember seeing prototype even though it was not presented. see distortions of prototype and later recall seeing actual shape because protype activated
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Expertise and prototypes
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what is basic can be changed with expertise, bird watchers will identify a red breasted cardinal easier. will be a lot more specific, also culturally shaped
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prototypes can be abstracted
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central tendency- prototypes can be summaries of what does not really exist, there is not one actual instance. average FU student may not have all of the attributes we describe, we do not just store prototypes we also store instances and examplars
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examplar Approach
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PDP model accounts for storing different instances and for summarizing those "superposition" (connectionist model of prototypes) windows of each day we know and and top of each other to find the average, focus on representation in memory
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schema
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abstracted information structure based on experience with instances, our generalized knowledge about situations, events and things
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script
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a type of schema for the set of actions that need to be preformed to do something, actions in a time frame like making a pbj
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properties of schemas/scripts
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schemas are embedded within schemas in the folllowing ways:
defaults (must haves-food in restaurant) variables (options-wine in restaurant) hierarchical structures (appetizer, entree, dessert) |
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use of schemas/scripts
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-efficiency and power
-guides recognition/comprehension (understanding and inferences) -retrieval, reinforces but can also lead to false memories |
