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57 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Semantic memory
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Semantic memory (vs. auditory, visual, olfactory) –type of info stored in LTM is general knowledge of the world (ex: knowledge of love, polar bears)- A combination of dictionary, thesaurus and encyclopedia-general knowledge that is not traced to a single event-abstract of common elements from a variety of previous episodes ex: learning what a stop sign is, you don’t know when you learned it. –knowledge of a simple concept consists of a wide range of info. –Our understanding of complexity of semanted memory came out of trying to dvelope artificial indtelligence.
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Do we need a vast knowledge to comprehend
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Ex: billy has no money for present, conclusion: vast storehouse of knowledge is essential for even the smallest acts of comprehension.
-Individual variation in semantic knowledge: individuals have a wide range of a concept depending on experiences and motivation to learn. Ex: Polynesians have wider range of bananas and banana plants. |
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High knowledge and its impact on Individual Performance
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: example: high knowledges vs low knowledge of baseball, everyone given account of an inning, then asked what they remember. Those with a higher knowledge had better memory (visualizing relating) better ordered events, more detail could anticipate what else would happen. The lower knowledge was more likely to remember less relevant info. Conclusion: high knowledge improves memory, provides framework for interpreting and organizing material, our experiences interpreted through existing knowledge base.
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Theory on Semantic Memory: Spreading ACtivation Model
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Semantic memory spreads from node to node and activation links to others. Not one node contains all material (1 item = 1 node). Nodes are linked through associations based upon frequency of occurring associations. The length of the line = the strength of association. Ex bird---snow is stronger than bird---------------ostrich – Access to memory is determined by transversing network. It takes time for activation to spread. –Spreading Activation network is constructed using Reaction time experiments. Es: true valse questions –activating one node allows other close nodes to be activated easily (activation spreads) ex: bird-feather-chirp or Christmas-music-wreath-treats-presents- Activations decayse across time: activation nodes return to a baseline level of activity-developemntal issues: children getting older-The absolute number of entries in semantic memory increases (with growing vocab and learning new concepts)- The framework increases in complexity. –the more frequently nodes are activated in context the more features are likely to be associated with then. Facilitation memory(expert performancy)-Allowing for anticipating and predicting future relationships among concepts-ease of activation increases when the strength of the relationship increases.
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Theory on Semantic Memory: Feature Set Model
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An attribute model. Rather than a node for each concept, knowledge of concepts are presented by a set of features they posses. Some features are more important than others (info in bundles) Defining features: all objects in the class share defining features. Characteristic feature (robin flies, read breast, nest in trees only generally true) the meaning of concept is represented by the entire bundle of features. Thinking of concept activates bundles. Decision process: If many features are matched than the decision is fast. If few features are matched than the decision is lsower. –The speed of matching features are how typical and how representative features are. Ex of study: read passge”coconuts, water on all sides except one,” “apartments, snow, water on all sides except one”. More likely to choose the first because of typical characteristics. Ex of study: friendly old woman took something vs gruffy old man took something. Second is consider robber, not focusing on defining features. Ex: headstart and BYU preschool video (don’t talk to strangers).
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Exemplar Theory Assumption 1:l
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have the common assumption that knowledge in LTM is stored in an abstract representation at experience ie. In a generic form (prototype) of some type, most people think of a specific event with a dog, not a generic dog.
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Associated Network: (spreading activation)
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All semantic memory models have the common assumption that knowledge in LTM is stored in an abstract representation at experience ie. In a generic form (prototype) of some type, most people think of a specific event with a dog, not a generic dog.
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Examplar Theory Assumption 2
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Assumption 2 of exemplar theory: maintain that previous events interfered with our abstract representation of knowledge (because knowledge is not stored as single events) Study: gymnastic judges scores were influenced by # of warmup mishaps-not supposed to happen-thus previous knowledge does interfere. Summary of exemplar theory: Collection of instances or events that a grouped similarity mechanism.
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Scheme
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a large body of organized info about concepts and events –web pages-broader concept than semantic knowledge-unlike semantic memory which may be organized hierarchaly, schemes can be organized temporally or spatially
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Spatially organized schemes
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BYU campus, pictures, places study-people in room asked to remember things in a room, remembered basic things but didn’t remember the abstract
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Temporally Organized Schemes
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Standard restaurant script-Lessens cognitive demand-makes life predictable-scripted events improve memory-pleasant remembered more, blocking bad? Or not encoded?
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Schema Theory
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What is encoded in LTM is strongly influenced by schema and episodes that help select and interpret new info so that it is reasonably consistent with ones schemes.
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Basic Processes Relevant to Schema Theory
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a)selection: info selected for encoding depends upon the existence of a relevant scheme (this influences our attention)
b) abstraction-once info is selected it is processed further in which the gist or meaning is encoded and many non essential details are dropped-exceptions are highly stylized cases: lords prayer, pledge of allegiance c) interpretation: we interprete and elaborate upon info during encoding, based on influences with which we already have had d)integration: info that remains after encoding will be integrated with previously acquired relevant info-new info is incorporated into existing schemes |
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Types of schemes
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spatial(byucampus), physical (dancing, muscle memory), procedural (board games, rules), social (funeral)
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Purposes of Schemes and Scripts
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Make knowledge predictable(hypothesis generation) enables us to draw inferences (how to behave in Drs office) makes vast amount of knowledge manageable-provided framework in which new knowledge can be integrated and understood
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organizing and changing schemes
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(interpretation and integration) Prototypes: tend to organize and group developing prototypes (best examples) or or packets of shared info (exemplar theory) which provide info with minimal cognitive effort.
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Mechanism of organizing and changing
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Mechanism of organizing and changing=piaget’s assimilation and accommodation
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Assimilation
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: take new info and put it into existing scheme-look at the similarities . nectarin----funny peach
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Accommodation
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take new info and put it in its own category. Nectarine—look at differences and categorize it.
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Elaboration
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building and expanding data base: hopi Indians have two words for things that fly, (birds, not birds) why? It wasn’t important .—elaboration, butterflies, grasshoppers, ducks, what makes birds ddiff from butterflies.
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cross referencing
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(make connection---insights) ex, birds and chickens same speices
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Fuzzy trace theory and its 4 basic assumptions
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Not storing literal and exact but a “gist” 4 basic assumptions
1. Memory traces exist on a continuum from literal, verbatim to fuzzy gist. Literal info is precise- fuzzy traces are gists—vague reduced to essence. (u.s. capitals)Literal---------------------Fuzzy (populations of world (know which is bigger but not exact # 2. People prefer to reason, to think and remember intuitively (process fuzzy rather than verbatim traces) –Verbatim traces are more susceptible to interference and forgetting ex: 5th grade. –fuzzy traces are mor easily accessed, requires less effort to use them and easier to encod (do not require effortful encoding strategies) 0shoping for shoes at dullards vs. norstroms, exact price is forgotten but which one has better bargain is easier. Ex: map of world-map is not stored literal but gist-we distort world as we construct it in our working memory 3. Short term memory is reconstructive (memories reconstructed and modified in STM ex: construct and distort map –piaget’s task of children perception of tree on hill-cash register story-documentary of titanic vs. movie 4. Output interferes with subsequent processing process of merely giving a response dcan alter memoroy. Becomes embedded in memory trace and stored in LTM. |
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Developmental issues with remembering
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: young child memory is specialized for encoding and processing info verbatim. Thus they get bogged down with details and hidners effective cognitive process, young childs ability to extract gist improves with age-older child and adults rely on reconstruction of gist.
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1. Trial and Error
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Try something, if it doesn’t work try another, works well if possible solutions are few. More problematic for things that aren’t simple (Edison tried thousands of substances for a light bulb filament), main strategy of preschoolers (maze, puzzle, matching game.)
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2. Hypothesis Testing
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better task that have a large amount of possible solutions (what do you do when a car won’t start), make a guess according to knowledge and circumstance.
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3. Algorithms
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Systematic, logical step by step procedures ex: math problem, computer
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4. Heuristics
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“ a rule of thumb” experience tells you certain things will work. In solving the word puzzle we didn’t try ever combination but used k knowledge of language to help), al has major obstacles in using heuristics
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Problem solving strategies for coping with new situation for which there is no obvious response.
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1. Trial and Error-Try something, if it doesn’t work try another, works well if possible solutions are few. More problematic for things that aren’t simple (Edison tried thousands of substances for a light bulb filament), main strategy of preschoolers (maze, puzzle, matching game.)
2. Hypothesis Testing: better task that have a large amount of possible solutions (what do you do when a car won’t start), make a guess according to knowledge and circumstance. 3. Algorithms: Systematic, logical step by step procedures ex: math problem, computer 4. Heuristics: “ a rule of thumb” experience tells you certain things will work. In solving the word puzzle we didn’t try ever combination but used k knowledge of language to help), al has major obstacles in using heuristics |
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Obstacles to Problem Solving
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Human tendencies that interfere with our problem solving abilities:
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Obstacles to Problem Solving: Confirmation Bias
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1. Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for information that confirms our ideas. Rather than to search for information that disproves our ideas. (why physical and sexual abuse is thought to be so prevalent. A) Why we have placebo affects in nutrition and medicine studies. Ex: acupuncture study, splacebo study with toothpicks and felt less pain afterwards. Study: Sugar buzz, both groups received a placebo, mothers reported the group was much more hyperactive. Mother changed but not the child. B) Conspiracy theories about government: ex: Oklahoma bomber though gov was against them, more twisters in US, OJ Simpson trial, justy thought was a conspiracy and ignored dna evidence.
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Obstacles to problem solving: fixation
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A mind set (inability to see problem from a new perspective. Video: Why children don’t get it. Nine dot problem.
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Obstacles to problem solving: overgenerilizations
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a)representative heuristic: rule of thumb, judge thing in terms of how well they represent the stereotype. Typical members of a category are encoded most frequently (preschoolers sex-typing that driving a car is for boys) b) availability heuristic: Judgments made on availabilitly of information in our memories. Ex: Missionaries kidnapped in Russia ex: How safe is it to live a block away from housing projects
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Obstacles to problem solving: Overconfidence
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4. Overconfidence: Use quick and easy rules of thumb in forming judgments (black and white no gray area) Susceptible to monetary graud by dubious investors. Overconfidene comes from trust in others, based on feelings, naïve, limited schemes and scripts, children lack database, small towns.
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Obstacles to problem solving: Exaggerated fear.
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Fears are not based on odds.
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Obstacles to Problem Solving
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1. Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for information that confirms our ideas. Rather than to search for information that disproves our ideas. (why physical and sexual abuse is thought to be so prevalent. A) Why we have placebo affects in nutrition and medicine studies. Ex: acupuncture study, splacebo study with toothpicks and felt less pain afterwards. Study: Sugar buzz, both groups received a placebo, mothers reported the group was much more hyperactive. Mother changed but not the child. B) Conspiracy theories about government: ex: Oklahoma bomber though gov was against them, more twisters in US, OJ Simpson trial, justy thought was a conspiracy and ignored dna evidence.
2. Fixation: A mind set (inability to see problem from a new perspective. Video: Why children don’t get it. Nine dot problem. 3. Overgenerilizations: a)representative heuristic: rule of thumb, judge thing in terms of how well they represent the stereotype. Typical members of a category are encoded most frequently (preschoolers sex-typing that driving a car is for boys) b) availability heuristic: Judgments made on availabilitly of information in our memories. Ex: Missionaries kidnapped in Russia ex: How safe is it to live a block away from housing projects 4. Overconfidence: Use quick and easy rules of thumb in forming judgments (black and white no gray area) Susceptible to monetary graud by dubious investors. Overconfidene comes from trust in others, based on feelings, naïve, limited schemes and scripts, children lack database, small towns. 5. Exaggerated fear: Fears are not based on odds. |
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Creativity
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A higher form of problem solving. Associated with intelligence but is not the same thing. IQ measure convergent thinking-best response. Creativity is a measure of divergent thinkinn-what other possibilities are
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Creativity and 4 types
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1. Novel response: Not typical, new or different way to approach a problem –responses can’t be too bizarre
2. Pragmatic: useful, workable, productive (ex. Us patents) 3. Valued by society: Musician-not valued bach, artist not valued vangogh, scientist, Galileo 4. Considered superior in some dimension to peers |
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Components of Creativity:
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1. Expertise: well developed knowledge/database. Canyou be a violinist without having skills in violin. No.
2. Imaginative thinking skills: Can see new ways and approaches to solve problems. Able to make new types of connections. Ex: New way to build a house, roof first. 3. Intrinsic motivation: enjoy what they do and do it because they want to do it. Not due to external pressures or rewards. Ex: Problem with communist scientist in Russia. |
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Family influences on development of creative motivation
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Most creative individuals have an obsession with their area of interest. A higher IQ and Persistance is greater than a higher IQ and moderate persistence. Other critical ingreadients include joy, passion, fascination, curiosity. Many parents and schools squelch these ingredients.
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Fostering creative motivation
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1. Provide children with materials time and space (variety of materials to explore and manibulate, creative problem solving. Props for make believe, doctors kid, fireman hat, they need prompting.-Allow for creative/pretend paly (don’t overschedule)-space for forts, legos houses)-allow sufficient time for creative play (don’t fill life with structured activities, videos, computer and Nintendo games. Children need time to refulect upon ideas (ex: boy with black paint) 2. Provide skills-Long term systematic instruction. Lessons, drawing dance musical instruments, copying issues: ex: lego maps, not popular until created maps and packs to make certain things) (most great artists copied other styles as they were learning skills. 3. Encourage children to persist in tasks that may be temporarily discouraging (don’t give in too readily to their disappointments) 4. Be tolerant for some nonconformity-thinking outside the box (once they develop skill they need ot have some type of expressions. Ex: assignment of drawing snowman “that’s not a snowman” 5. Stimulate intellectual curiousity and share in child’s excitement (get excited about what they do)-what whill happen if…-provide challenging tasks that stretch their thinking (scaffold them to higher levels) 6. Teach and model divergent thinking (fluency and flexibility help solve “what else can we do with this” Fluir- a lot of same category. Flexible: Shift in category.
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Non-social cognitions
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Cognitions about words, #’s and images objects ect.
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Social Cognitions
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Cognitions about relationships and social phenomena: Anticipating the thoughts and eelings of others. Execution of social strategies. Peer group entry strategies initiation and sustaining play with peers, secure attachment and parenting ect.
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Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory
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Bandura: started out as a simple imitation or social learning theory, modeling theory (imitation is self rewarding/intrinsic) versus learning theory (rewards are intrinsic). He did bobo doll experiment-children watched adult hit bobo doll, then child hits bobo doll (children will model adults and other children). Also said that children will imitate what they see on tv. Bandura transformed his theory into social cognitive theory.
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Social Cognitive Theory
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: Develop cognitions about world and how they fit and what they should do in certain situation. Is modeling, imitation automatic or mindless? No they think and realize norms and patterns. Like piaget, bandura maintains that children affect their environments as much as their environment affets them. We develop theorires of the mind. Personal narratives how we defin ourselves.
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5 capabilities that contribute to children learning about their social world.
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1. Symbolization-Think about social behavior in words and images. Ex: mom says share mand m’s and child has to envision the sharing behavior.
2. Forethought: Are able to anticipate the consequences of our actions and the actions of others. (Child can envision peers reciprocating sharing behaviors in the future. 3. Self regulation: adopting standards of acceptable behavior for ourselves (have social and moral standards), child shares even though not asked by others. 4. Self reflection: allows child to analyze his/her thoughts and actions (child understands why sharing is good) 5. Vicarious Learning (the cornerstone)-allows us to learn from observing others. To know if child has capabilities 1-3 ask “show me you can share” |
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Vyzotskys zone of proximal development
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lower boundary: actual development level, what child can do at any moment. Upper boundary: potential developmental level, what’s within the child’s present learning abilities. Zone is a potential that with parent guidance and curiosity can be used to expand comprehension. How far they go in the zone is based on extent someone is willing to guide them. Children pregress through zone with help of scaffolding.
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Gender roles and gender schemes
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Historical issue, Nature versus nurture, biological perspective (brain organization,homosexuality), environmental perspecdtive (learning theory/early m odeling theory), cognitive perspective (Kohlberg, Bem, Martin and Halverso)
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Gender Schema theory assumptions:
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1. After 4 or 5 children develop a gender identity. Ex: “when I grow up I want to be a daddy like you”, 2. Categorize and label themselves as “boy” or “girl”, 3. realize that unlike age or size, gender doesn’t change.
2. Gender Schema is a “naïve theory of self”: Ex: tommys friends mother had a baby, see baby had bath “ I don’t know its hard to tell, it didn’t have any clothes on” ex: using hair length and clothing used as outward markers 3. Children value “self” and like “self things/activities” “I’m a boy so I like boy things”- Two basic gender schemes (selectivity model)- expands gender repetoir. |
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Children developing gender identity
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1. After 4 or 5 children develop a gender identity. Ex: “when I grow up I want to be a daddy like you”, 2. Categorize and label themselves as “boy” or “girl”, 3. realize that unlike age or size, gender doesn’t change.
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GEnder schema: Naive theory of self:
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2. Gender Schema is a “naïve theory of self”: Ex: tommys friends mother had a baby, see baby had bath “ I don’t know its hard to tell, it didn’t have any clothes on” ex: using hair length and clothing used as outward markers
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Basic gender scemes
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a) In group, out group (What do mommies/girls do?, What do daddies/boys do?”b) Own sex (Mainly what what is in their own sex schemes –dolls are for girls-What can I do with this doll?)
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in group out grouop
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a) In group, out group (What do mommies/girls do?, What do daddies/boys do?”b) Own sex (Mainly what what is in their own sex schemes –dolls are for girls-What can I do with this doll?)
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Own sex schemes
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Own sex (Mainly what what is in their own sex schemes –dolls are for girls-What can I do with this doll?)
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Gender Schema theory assumptions:
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1. After 4 or 5 children develop a gender identity. Ex: “when I grow up I want to be a daddy like you”, 2. Categorize and label themselves as “boy” or “girl”, 3. realize that unlike age or size, gender doesn’t change.
2. Gender Schema is a “naïve theory of self”: Ex: tommys friends mother had a baby, see baby had bath “ I don’t know its hard to tell, it didn’t have any clothes on” ex: using hair length and clothing used as outward markers 3. Children value “self” and like “self things/activities” “I’m a boy so I like boy things”- Two basic gender schemes (selectivity model)- expands gender repetoir. 2 Basic gender scemes: a) In group, out group (What do mommies/girls do?, What do daddies/boys do?”b) Own sex (Mainly what what is in their own sex schemes –dolls are for girls-What can I do with this doll?) 4. Children are overefficient in categorizing gender (roles, traits, behaviors) when young. –Assimilation or gender stereotyping (is wa Stereotyping (Is washing dishes something mommies do daddies do or both-overly efficient respond mom. 5. Gender schemes may becomes more flexible as they get older if: a) their culture allows it (belief system)b)they are motivated to do so (accommodate, gener roles, traits, attributes) 6. Labeling of gender plays a more efficient role than modeling in determinging in-group-out group scheme ex: say “this balloon is for girls” –modeling may come into play after the activity is determined as appropriate-suppy the details on their own- Sex schema experiments: a) children remembered more labeled same sex schemas one week later b) children can script same sex events more accurately where same sex scheme. |
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Harvard Preschool Study. A moms of most competent
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Group A moms= 1. Directly as consultants (did what they needed to do but were available to children “on the fly”, a) generally engaged in more 1on1 interaction b) did not spend large amounts of time directly teaching but were available or 20-30 second teaching episodes c) conslulted child, if child ran into difficulties (played near mom) d) talked frequently to child vs. listening to tv. E) gave child ideas when child was bored-arranged materials.2. Indirect role as designers and organizers of childs physical needs. A) provided home with small manipulateable objects b) provided home with things to climb on and to practice motor skills. C)provided homes with many interesting things to look at d) homes were not immaculate but not extremely messy. 3. Organized play areas a)for toddlers-have a toy box in every room, bathroom, family room, bedroom, formal living room. –try to spend some time each day involved in parallel play with children even when they have siblings to play with. B) protect some drawers (child proof) but allow a few to be explored c) young children need constant stimulation when they’re awake d) organize home and put expensive things out of reach (2 yr olds being told every five minutes)
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c moms of least competent
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gave many rules, protected their own possessions from children, always giving commands, restricted exploration with play pen and gates. Little variety of toys for exploration, talked to children less, more tv, did not hsare childs excitement
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Havard study on a and b moms
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Harvard preschool study: wanted to study impacts of head start-found children dumped together in intellect-those very intellectual could cope and get along with others more superior. Group A=most competent Group C=least competent (least prepared) Group C mothers= gave many rules, protected their own possessions from children, always giving commands, restricted exploration with play pen and gates. Little variety of toys for exploration, talked to children less, more tv, did not hsare childs excitement. Group A moms= 1. Directly as consultants (did what they needed to do but were available to children “on the fly”, a) generally engaged in more 1on1 interaction b) did not spend large amounts of time directly teaching but were available or 20-30 second teaching episodes c) conslulted child, if child ran into difficulties (played near mom) d) talked frequently to child vs. listening to tv. E) gave child ideas when child was bored-arranged materials.2. Indirect role as designers and organizers of childs physical needs. A) provided home with small manipulateable objects b) provided home with things to climb on and to practice motor skills. C)provided homes with many interesting things to look at d) homes were not immaculate but not extremely messy. 3. Organized play areas a)for toddlers-have a toy box in every room, bathroom, family room, bedroom, formal living room. –try to spend some time each day involved in parallel play with children even when they have siblings to play with. B) protect some drawers (child proof) but allow a few to be explored c) young children need constant stimulation when they’re awake d) organize home and put expensive things out of reach (2 yr olds being told every five minutes)
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