Cognition And Development

Front 1

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Back 1

Mechanisms; Schema, Assimilation, (Dis)Equilibrium, Accommodation, Operations
Stages; Sensorimotor, Pre-operational stage, Concrete operational stage, Formal operational stage

Front 2

Baillargeon and DeVos

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Object permanence in Sensorimotor stage; Infants 3-4 mths Rolling car task small or large carrot sliding along a track and hidden at one point by a screen w/ large window. Large carrot should be seen (but doesnt) and small carrot shouldnt. Looking longer shows they expected top half visable from the window.

Front 3

Bower

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infants 5-6 mths old. children surprised when object hidden under a screen was no longer there

Front 4

Piaget

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Blanket and Ball study. Placed ball under a blanket, children around 8mths looked for the ball demonstrated Object permanance; they could form mental representation in their mind

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Bower and Wishart

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infants 1-4 mths. waited for children to reach for object then turned out lights. filmed using infra red camera. Infant cont. to reach for object up to 90 secs after it became 'invisible'. Object permanence occurs earlier. Attention span?

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Piaget and Inhelder

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3 different mountains, child asked to look at it, doll placed at various positions around table. Shown photos from dif. positions, 4 y/o from own view = egocentric, 7 y/o correct picture. Demonstrates egocentrism in Pre-operational stage

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Hughes

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Children shown model w/ 2 intersecting walls, 'naughty boy' and 2 'policemen'. Researcher hides policemen, then child hides boy from them. 2 police represent 2 dif. views. 3-5 y/o 90% correct

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McGarrigle and Donaldson

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Naught teddy messes up 2 identical rows of sweets. Children asked if there was a same number, 4-6 y/o 505 correct answers. Demonstrates Piagets design was too difficult; children showed conservation.

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Piaget

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Child agrees that in 2 identical short beakers there is the same amount of coloured water. Experimenter pours liquid in one into tall thin beaker then child asked if same amount. Under 6 y/o believe tall beaker has more. Do not show conservation.

Front 10

Piaget and Inhelder

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Pendulum task. Length of string and weights Participant was determine what factor - length of string, heaviness of weight, strength of push - most important in determining speed. Formal operational stage = tested on variable at a time.

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Dansen

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only a third of adults reach the Formal operational stage

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Vygotsky

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Culture and social interaction play a fundamental role in a child's development: Elementary and Higher mental functions; 3 stages of speech, Cognitive structures, Processes and Content; Social interactions and ZPD

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Gredler

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Counting system used in Papua New Guinea, counting is done by starting at thumb, up to arm and etc ending at 29. Difficult to add and subtract large numbers; culture limits cog. development

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Carmichael et al

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Two groups. Pps given two labels for certain drawings. When asked to re-draw shape, it reflected the label they were given. Words affect recall ; demonstrates role of language in forming mental representations.

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Sinclair-de-Zwart

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teachingchildren who could not conserve to use comparative terms not in vocab. such as bigger and smaller. No improvement in ability to conserve, refutes claim language drives cog.dev

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McNaughton and Leyland

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Children reached higher level puzzle task with mothers' help (potential ability) than when alone (current ability). Mother sensitive to ZPD, when below ZPD she kept chld on task, when within it, just gave hints

Front 17

McNaughton and Leyland

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Retested following week, measured highest level child could reach unaided. compared to when with mother. Difference between two set out ZPD

Front 18

Miller

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Piaget's child is an introvert whereas Vygotsky's is an extravert. Both views are reconciled as they discuss different types of learner and learning

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Glassman

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Both place cognition at the center of their theories; both emphasise complex interactionist nature of development; both see learner as active than passive

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Bryant and Trabasso (PIAGET APPLICATIONS)

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showed pre-operational children could be trained to solve certain logical tasks. argue that childrens failure was due to memory restrictions rather than operational (logical) thinking. Practice over "Readiness"

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Danner and Day

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practice made no difference. 10 -13 y/o tutored on fomral operational task and showed no improvements. whereas 1 y/o did.

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Modgil et al

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Pigetian technques leads to lack of content knowledge and backwardness in writing and and reading as they spend too little time practicing.

Front 23

Walkerdine

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theories of cognitive development provide 'after the fact'/'post hoc'/'post facto' justifications for a new educational idea.

Front 24

Wood et al (VYGOTSKY APPLICATIONS)

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scaffolding is 'process that enables a...novice to solve a problem beyond his unassisted efforts'

Front 25

Wood and Middleton

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child completed 3D puzzle beyong capabilities. where mother responded to failures by giving more explicit instructions, and to sucesses by giving less explicit instructions, child performed more sucessfully. MKO must respond to learner to enhance learning

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Gokhale

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children who participates in collaborative learning performed significantly better on critical thinking test than students who studied individually.

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Cohen

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Peer tutoring leads to improvements in both tutees' and tuors' academic and social development.

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Cloward

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tutoring most effective for peer tutors

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Slavin

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tutoring in above research in addition to normal lessons. Extra lessons therefore leads to greater success.

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Bennet

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Children taught via formal methods did better on reading, maths and english. However best results of all were produced by techers using informal methods. Lack of success of active learning is because teachers spend more time on core subjects.

Front 31

Stigler and Perry

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compared American and Asian schools. Maths was more effectively taought collectively in Asia than individually in America.

Front 32

Kolberg (MORAL UNDERSTANDING)

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Tested moral understanding by devising moral dilemmas such as Heinz and the druggist, who could not sell a drug that would save Heniz's dying wife. pps asked series of questions like 'Should H steal them?' 'Why?' 10- 16 y/o boys, devised stages of Moral dev,

Front 33

Kohlbergs Stages

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Pre-conventional Level= Punishment and Obedience Oreinatation, Intrumental Purpose Oreintation; Convential Level = Interpersonal cooperation, Social order maitainence ; Post Conventional= Social-contract oreintation, Universal ethical principles

Front 34

Kohlberg

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15% College students at post-conventional stage cheated whereas 70% at pre-conventional did.

Front 35

Burton

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other factors influence moral behavior, such as liklihood of punishment and nature of situation.

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Gilligan

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women care more about relationships ratther than justice in making moral decisions.

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Colby and Kohlberg

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Stages are universal; evidence from Mexico, Turkey, India and Kenya support original findings.

Front 38

Colby et al

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Longitudinal study. Followed Kolbergs initial 58 men pps every 3 years. 65% stage 4, 30% stage 3 (conventional) , 5% stage 5 (post conventional)

Front 39

Snarey

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reviewed studies from 27 different cultures, all reporting same sequence of moral dev.

Front 40

Snarey and Keljo

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Post conventional understanding mostly in more developed industrial societies than rural. Supports Kohlbergs concept of disequilibrium, More diverse communities pose more conflict promoting moral dev. as they have to question moral standard.

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Krebs and Denton

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Moral understanding does not drive moral behavior; when analyzing real life moral decisions, moral principles are used to justify behavior after it had happened.

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Eisenberg

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Kohlberg view of morality is restricted by ignoring the effect of emotional factor. Moral decision making matures as child develops ability to empathize.

Front 43

Fodor

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Delinquents operate at much lower level than non-delinquents

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Gilligan and Attanucci

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group of men and women to produce accounts of own moral dilemmas. Men favoured justice, whereas women favoured care.

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Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (SENSE OF SELF)

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Mirror test for self recognition. Colouring infants nose with Rouge placing them in front of mirror. Touching own nose shows recognition; 9-12 mths smiled, 21 mths 70% touched nose

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Slater and Lewis

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Objective. Self reflection. 24mths children use personal pornouns like 'me' and 'mine'

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Legerstee et al

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Subjective. Self recogniton. 5 - 8 mths looked longer at pictures of themselves than those of other children

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Amsterdam

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Mirror test 88 babies, but only 16 responses reliable. 6 - 12 mths acted if mirror was someone else. 13- 24 mths children wearily. 24 mths clear recognition.

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Damon and Hart

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children 4 years mention physical features abouth themselves such as 'I've got black hair' or 'I can ride my bike'

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Eder

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Psy.self. Stable personal insight. asked questions to elicit insight into childs psychological sense of self. Responces where stable over time, showing rudimentary psychological insights.

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Legerstee

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Subjective. Personal agency. Newborns distinguish between objects and humans

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Mahler et al

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Freudian view is that infants have no sense of differentness from mother , and that this individuatio occurs during the first few months of life

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Pipp et al

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Development of self recognition faster in securely attached infants

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Borke et al

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Self recognition occurs faster in babies encouraged to be independent. Cultural dif., Western cultures attachment is about independence where are in non Western is about interdependence

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Verschueren and Marcoen

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Self esteem more positive in securely attached children and is stable over time. 4-5 y/o with self esteem this is linked to attachment history.

Front 56

Baron-Cohen

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False belief, Sally-Anne Task. Sally puts ball in basket before leaving, Anne moves this into box. Sally return and child pps is asked where she will look. Those giving correct answer show TOM

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Baron-Cohen

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Sally Anne test shows Autistic chiildren lacked TOM. Provides understanding of condition- prev. thought it was due to lo IQ. created CHAT test to see test for Autism.

Front 58

Gallup

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Baby monkeys respond in Mirror test. Demonstrated they possess self awareness suggesting they can feel pain. Basis for animal rights protesting.

Front 59

Call and Tomsellow

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Understanding of Intention in Orangutans, Chimps and Children. All 3 species knew the difference in intentional and accidental actions.

Front 60

Mischel

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Situationism. general traits do not exist. behavior is influenced by external situational factors rather than internal motivations and traits; sense of self demonstrated in one situation may not be shown in all

Front 61

Van Den Heuval

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Dutch, Moroccan children 10-11 years. Western individualist cultures used more psychological statements than non-western who referenced social aspects of self.

Front 62

Liu et al

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300 Chinese and North American children. Similar sequence of development of TOM in both groups. But 2 years difference between communities. Demontrates nature/nuture biological/experiential factors.

Front 63

Perner et al

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TOM appears earlier in children from larger families.

Front 64

Sabbagh and Callanan

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Discussion about motives and other mental states promote the development of TOM

Front 65

Carpenter er al

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Intentionality. 1 year old children follow gaze and poiniting to more distant objects. Demonstrates understanding of Communicative Intent

Front 66

Carpenter et al

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Same test with Autistic children, little difference demonstrating TOM is separate from understanding intentions.

Front 67

Selman

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Dilemmas show importance of role taking and perspective taking. as children age, they develop ability to analyse perspectives of others and can imagine how socio-cultural mores will influence these

Front 68

Cole

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3 year old children could hide disappointment when received worst present if watched by others. Didnt do this when alone but filmed secretly.

Front 69

Selman's Stages of Persepctive Taking

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Undifferentiated, Social-informational, Self-reflective, Mutual, Societal/Cultural

Front 70

Eisenberg et al

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Individual differences in perspective taking. Personalities high in emotionality and low in ability to control emotions are less socially competent

Front 71

Notsurewho

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Ind.Dif. 15 y/o teenagers who were mistreated has perspective taking ability of a 10 y/o

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Shaffer

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More popular children have better role taking ability

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Smith and Pellgrini

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SST Social Skills Training Used with older children to develop role taking skills. Also used in therapeutic sessions with people with mental disorders or emotional problems.

Front 74

Riolattie et al

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certain neurons in F5 area of premotor cortex became active when macaque monkeys saw someone doing an action, and when they were doing it them selves

Front 75

Lhermitte et al

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Individuals who have damage to frontal cortex display compulsive imitation

Front 76

Gallese and Goldman

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'a part of or a precursor to, a more general mind reading ability'

Front 77

Eisenberg

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Empathy is likely to cause pro-social behaviour

Front 78

Rizzolatti and Arbib

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Learning to use language is involves the imitation of speech sounds and this is likely to involve MNs

Front 79

Binkofski

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Evidence of MN's in Broca's area, part of brain involved in speechh production. Human equivilent of the F5 area (bit found in the monkeys lol)

Front 80

Lamm et al

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Brain regions active when people experience emotions or active when watching someone else experience emotions are not the ones identified for Mirror Neurons.

Front 81

Gazzola et al

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People high in empathy show greater activity in MN brain regions

Front 82

Gopnik

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claims made for the role of MN have little foundation. Inconceivable that systems as complex as moral behviour can be explained simply by mirror neurons; they explain the basis of TOM but a lot more is actually involved.