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207 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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major elements of the animal body |
-oxygen -carbon -hydrogen -nitrogen |
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matter |
-anything that occupies space and has mass -can exist as a gas, liquid or solid and is composed of elements |
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chemical symbol |
the abbreviation of the name of a chemical used to identify the elements in the periodic table of elements |
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atom |
the smallest unit of an element that retains the unique properties of the element |
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the subatomic particles are |
-protons -neutrons -electrons |
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what happens if you change the number of protons in an atom? |
-if the number of protons in an atom is changed the element is changed to another element, this can only be done with extraordinary means (like a nuclear reaction) |
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atomic number |
the number of protons in an atom |
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what charge to protons have? |
positive |
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isotope |
one of two or more atoms have the same atomic number (same number of protons) but different masses (different number of neutrons) |
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what happens if the number of neutrons in an element are changed? |
it becomes an isotope of that element |
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what is the charge of neutrons? |
neutral |
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ion |
an electrically charged atom or molecule |
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cation |
positively charged ions |
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anions |
negatively charged ions |
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what happens if the number of electrons in an atom is changed? |
-the atom becomes an ion of that element -if an electron is added it becomes negatively charged -if an electron is removed it becomes positively charged |
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what is the charge of an electron? |
negative |
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electron shell |
-the grouping of electrons around the nucleus of an atom |
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inert |
-chemicals with full outer electron shells that are therefore chemically inactive |
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atomic weight |
-the average mass of an element -determined by adding the number of neutrons to the number of protons |
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How many elements are there |
-112 w/ 92 occurring in nature |
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Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and carbon make up what % of the matter found in all living organisms
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96%
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The subatomic particles of an atom are:
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-protons |
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Molecule |
-the smallest unit of substance composed of 2 or more atoms that retains the properties of the substance |
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molecule of an element |
-two or more atoms of the same element joined together |
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compound |
-a substance made up of 2 more elements |
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chemcial bond |
-the atoms are sharing or transferring electrons between them -it is the force by which atoms are bound in a molecule |
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the 3 types of chemical bonds |
-covalent bond -ionic bond -hydrogen bond |
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covalent bond |
-a chemical bond that is formed when atoms share electrons -the strongest chemical bond |
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a single covalent bond |
-a chemical bond that is formed when atoms share one electron |
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a double covalent bond |
-a chemical bond that is formed when atoms share two electrons |
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a triple covalent bond |
-a chemical bond that is formed when atoms share three electrons |
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polar molecule |
-a molecule with oppositely charged ends -sometimes the shared electrons in a covalent bond spend more time with one atom than with the other, this forms a molecule with oppositely charged ends -ex: water |
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ionic bond |
-a chemical bond formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another -the 2nd strongest type of chemical bond |
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what are the 2 scenarios in which an ionic bond is most likely to form? |
-those with fewer than 2 electrons in their outer shell and those with nearly full out shells: -an atom with 1 electron in its outer shell will be inclined to give up that electron so the "new" outer shell will be stable -an atom that needs only one electron readily accepts electrons that will make its outer shell full and stable |
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electrostatic attraction |
-the force between two particles of opposite electrical charge |
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hydrogen bonds |
-a hydrogen bond is a specific type of weak ionic bond -a chemical bond between hydrogen atoms already covalently bonded in a molecule to oppositely charged particles -the weakest chemical bond |
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chemical reaction |
-the formation and breaking of chemical bonds |
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chemical equation |
-the way in which a reaction is described in writing -shows the molecular formula of the reactants and the products as well as the direction of the reaction (indicated by an arrow) |
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the 3 types of chemical reactions |
-synthesis reaction (requires energy) -decomposition reaction (releases energy) -exchange reaction (no net energy requirements) |
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synthesis reaction |
-a new and more complex chemical is made from multiple, simpler chemicals -new bonds are formed so energy is required -potential energy is stored in the chemical bonds between the atoms |
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decomposition reaction |
-a single, complex chemical is broken into multiple, simpler chemicals -energy is released from the breaking of bonds -the potential energy which has been stored in the bonds is released |
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exchange reaction |
-certain atoms are exchanged between molecules: it is a combination of synthesis and decomposition reaction -exchanged reactions have no net energy requirements -the energy released from breaking the bonds is used to create the new bonds |
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factors which can influence the rate of chemical reactions
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-concentration of reactants
-temperature -catalysts/enzymes -activation energy required |
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how concentration of reactants influence the rate of chemical reactions |
-the more reactants that are available, the more likely they will come in contact and be able to react with each other |
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how temperature influences the rate of chemical reactions |
-when temperature increases, the speed of molecular movement increases and the chance of the molecules meeting improves -temperature also increases the velocity at which reactants meet and the velocity provides the energy for reaction |
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how catalysts/enzymes influence the rate of chemical reaction |
-certain reactions require the presence of a catalyst -reaction speed is increased when there are more catalyst proteins present |
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catalysts |
-special proteins that hold the reactants of a chemical reaction together so they may interact -a catalyst is not destroyed or used up by the reaction |
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inorganic molecules |
molecules that do not contain hydrocarbon groups (hydrogen and carbon bonded together) and they often have ionic bonding |
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organic compound |
molecules that contain hydrocarbon groups (hydrogen and carbon bonded together) and are usually covalently bonded |
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examples of inorganic molecules |
-water -salts -acids -bases |
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examples of organic compounds |
-carbohydrates -lipids -proteins -nucleic acids |
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properties of water |
-water is a universal solvent -water is an ideal transport medium -water has a high heat capacity and a high heat of vaporization -water is used for lubrication |
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solutes |
substance that is dissolved into another |
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solvent |
a substance in which another is dissolved |
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solution |
two or more substances mixed together homogenously |
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hydrophilic |
-water loving -substances that dissolve or mix well in water -usually polar molecules or ions |
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hydrophobic |
-water hating -substances that do not mix well with water -usually electrically neutral, non-polar molecules |
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ionize |
divide into separate ions |
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salts |
-mineral compounds that have ionic bonds and are the principle form of minerals that enter and are stored in the body -have the ability to transmit an electrical charge |
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acids |
-ionically bonded substances that when added to water freely release hydrogen ions -proton donors |
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bases |
-alkaline compounds that are ionically bonded and ionize when in water and also release a hydroxal ion -proton acceptors |
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what does the pH scale measure |
alkalinity and acidity |
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what is 1 on the pH scale |
the most acidic |
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what is 14 on the pH scale |
the most alkaline |
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what is 7 on the pH scale |
the middle of the pH scale and neutral |
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what pH does the animal body maintain |
around 7.4 |
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what happens when an acid and a base are mixed together? |
-they neutralize each other -they bring the pH of the scale closer to 7 |
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buffers |
-buffers are weak acids and bases are ones that do not completely ionize in water -buffers help cells maintain a neutral pH by not allowing excessive hydrogen or hydroxyl ions to accumulate |
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what happens when a weak acid or a weak base is added to water? |
-it does not ionize completely and it will act as either an acid or a base to bring the solution to a neutral pH |
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organic molecule |
-contain hydrocarbon group -typically have covalent bond |
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functional group |
-a group of atoms that define the properties of an organic molecule -allows for differentiation between molecules with similar hydrocarbon structures |
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macromolecules |
long, complex molecules often with repeating units |
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carbohydrates |
-molecules used for energy, storage of energy, and cellular structures -composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen |
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monosaccharides |
-the simplest form of a carbohydrate |
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Phosphorylation
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The breaking of the bonds in ATP in order to use the energy stored in the molecule
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Cellular respiration
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The process by which cells use nutrients to create ATP
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Where is ATP made?
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The mitochondria
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Where is ATP made?
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The mitochondria
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ATP
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-The main form of energy used by the cells
-fuels any work the cells need to do -adenosine triphosphate |
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Where is ATP made?
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The mitochondria
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ATP |
-The main form of energy used by the cells
-fuels any work the cells need to do -adenosine triphosphate |
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ATP stands for...
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Adenosine triphosphate
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Where is ATP made? |
The mitochondria
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ATP |
-The main form of energy used by the cells
-fuels any work the cells need to do -adenosine triphosphate |
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ATP stands for...
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Adenosine triphosphate
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What is the main form of energy used by cells?
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ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
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What are the 3 types of RNA?
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-transfer RNA
-messenger RNA -ribosomal RNA |
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Transfer RNA
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Copies the information in the DNA molecule
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Transfer RNA
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Copies the information in the DNA molecule
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Messenger RNA
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Carries the information out of the nucleus
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Transfer RNA
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Copies the information in the DNA molecule
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Messenger RNA
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Carries the information out of the nucleus
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Ribosomal RNA
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Uses the information to create proteins needed by the body
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How many strands of nucleotides does RNA have?
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One strand
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How many strands of nucleotides does RNA have? |
One strand
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Which nucleotides are found on RNA?
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-uracil
-adenine -cytosine -guanine |
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How many strands of nucleotides does RNA have?
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One strand
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Which nucleotides are found on RNA?
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-uracil
-adenine -cytosine -guanine |
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How many strands of nucleotides does RNA have? |
One strand
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Which nucleotides are found on RNA?
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-uracil
-adenine -cytosine -guanine |
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Which nucleotides are found on both RNA and DNA
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-Adenine
-guanine -cytosine |
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Which nucleotides are found on DNA?
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-Thymine
-adenine -cytosine -guanine |
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How many strands of nucleotides does RNA have?
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One strand
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Which nucleotides are found on RNA?
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-uracil
-adenine -cytosine -guanine |
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Which nucleotides are found on both RNA and DNA
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-Adenine
-guanine -cytosine |
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Which nucleotides are found on DNA?
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-Thymine
-adenine -cytosine -guanine |
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Which nucleotides are only found on RNA?
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Uracil
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How many strands of nucleotides does RNA have?
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One strand
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Which nucleotides are found on RNA?
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-uracil
-adenine -cytosine -guanine |
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Which nucleotides are found on both RNA and DNA |
-Adenine
-guanine -cytosine |
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Which nucleotides are found on DNA?
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-Thymine
-adenine -cytosine -guanine |
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Which nucleotides are only found on RNA?
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Uracil
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Which nucleotides are only found on DNA? |
Thymine
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How many nucleotides code for 1 amino acid? |
3 nucleotides
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What is the sugar in DNA?
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Deoxyribose
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What is the sugar in DNA?
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Deoxyribose
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What is the sugar in RNA?
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Ribose
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How many strands does DNA have?
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2 strands which spiral around each other in a double helix
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The function of DNA
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-contains all the instructions needed by the cell to produce proteins
-It is the blueprint for all proteins in the body |
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Function of RNA
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At least how many amino acids must be joined together to make a protein? |
100 amino acids
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What are the largest molecules in the body?
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Nucleic acids
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Which elements are Nucleic acids made up of?
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-carbon
-hydrogen -oxygen -nitrogen -phosphorus |
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The 2 classes of Nucleic acids are... |
-DNA |
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Where is DNA found?
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Mainly in the nucleus but also some maternal in the mitochondria |
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What is the structure of a nucleotide?
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-5 carbon pentose sugar
-phosphate group -nitrogenous base |
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Which elements make up carbohydrates?
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-carbon
-hydrogen -oxygen |
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Which elements make up carbohydrates?
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-carbon
-hydrogen -oxygen |
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What is the function of carbohydrates?
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Energy, storage of energy, cellular structures
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Hexose sugar |
A sugar with 6 carbon atoms |
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Pentose sugar |
A sugar with 5 carbon atoms
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Examples of Hexose sugars
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Glucose, fructose |
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Dehydration synthesis
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-a synthesis reaction wherein water is a byproduct
-the combination of 2 or more simple materials to form 1 or more complex materials by removing water |
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Hydrolysis
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The breaking down of more complex materials into simpler ones by adding water
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Anabolism
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The process by which cells use synthesis reactions to build molecules needed for cellular respiration |
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Catabolism
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The process by which cells use decomposition reactions to release energy held in bonds between atoms and to generate the simple molecular building blocks needed by the cell
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Disaccharide |
When 2 monosaccharides are joined together via dehydration synthesis
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Polysaccharide
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The combination of many monosaccharides, all joined together by dehydration synthesis
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Disaccharide
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When 2 monosaccharides are joined together via dehydration synthesis
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Polysaccharide
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The combination of many monosaccharides, all joined together by dehydration synthesis
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Glycogen |
A polysaccharide that stores fuel in body tissues
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Disaccharide
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When 2 monosaccharides are joined together via dehydration synthesis
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Polysaccharide |
The combination of many monosaccharides, all joined together by dehydration synthesis
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Glycogen
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A polysaccharide that stores fuel in body tissues
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Cellulose
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A polysaccharide that provides structural strength to plants |
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Glycoproteins
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-a macromolecule composed of a carbohydrate attached to a protein |
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Function of lipids |
Used in the body for energy and stored in fat for future energy needs |
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The 4 classes of lipids |
-neutral fats (triglycerides) |
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Chemical makeup of lipids
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Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (but much less oxygen than carbs)
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Glycerol molecule |
-A modified three-carbon simple sugar -the main component in triglycerides |
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Structure of a neutral fat/triglyceride |
Contains 3 fatty acids and a glycerol molecule
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Fatty acid |
A chain of carbon atoms with one or two hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon by double (unsaturated) or single bonds (saturated)
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Saturated fatty acid |
-A fatty acid when all the bonds in the hydrocarbon chain are single bonds & as many hydrogen atoms as possible are attached to the chain
-mainly found in animal fats like butter and lard -solid at room temperature |
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Saturated fatty acid
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-A fatty acid when all the bonds in the hydrocarbon chain are single bonds & as many hydrogen atoms as possible are attached to the chain
-mainly found in animal fats like butter and lard -solid at room temperature |
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Unsaturated fatty acid |
-when there are some double bonds between the hydrogen and carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain |
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What are the 3 types of eicosanoids? |
-prostaglandin
-thromboxane -leukotrienes |
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Prostaglandin
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-mediates inflammation
-an eicosanoid |
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Prostaglandin
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-mediates inflammation
-an eicosanoid |
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Thromboxane
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-mediates platelet function
-an eicosanoid |
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Leukotrienes |
-mediate bronchoconstriction and increased mucus production
-an eicosanoid |
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glucose |
-the primary fuel of the body -6 carbon ring with another functional carbon group -hexose sugar |
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fructose |
-a 6 carbon string, can be a string or a ring -the primary sugar in fruit which is then converted to glucose in the body -hexose sugar |
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glycolipids |
-a macromolecule composed of a lipid and a carbohydrate -plays an important role in the recognition of molecules to be transported into the cell |
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triglycerides/neutral fats |
-hydrophobic -stores energy for future use -protects organs against impact -insulates body and organs -ex: adipose tissue |
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example of triglycerides/neutral fats |
adipose tissue |
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lipoprotein |
-a macromolecule composed of proteins and lipids -used to transport fats within the body -the hydrophilic proteins allow the hydrophobic fats to be shielded from the blood plasma to be transported |
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structure of phospholipids |
-2 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone facing in one direction in place of a 3rd fatty acid (like the triglycerides) they have a phosphate group attached to a nitrogen-containing compounded extending in the other direction |
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the "head"side of a phospholipid |
-the head side is the phosphate group side -it is water soluble, polar and hydrophilic |
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the "tail" side of the phospholipid |
-the tail side is the lipid side -it is water-insoluble, hydrophobic and non-polar |
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lipid bilayer |
-the unique water-related proteins are what cause the phosopholipids to line up with the tail ends facing/touching each other and the head ends facing out when placed in a polar substance like water -the hydrophilic heads form hydrogen bonds with the water and the tails repelled from the water bump up against other tails -the main component of a cellular membrane |
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steroids |
-lipids that take the form of 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings -different types of steroids are formed by attaching unique functional groups to the four-ring structure of the molecule -they are hydrophobic non-polar substances with very little oxygen -they are all similar in structure and can potentially be converted into one another |
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example steroids |
cholesterol, cortisone, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone |
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eicosanoids |
-lipids formed from a 20-carbon fatty acid and a single ring structure -important substances in the mediation of complex chemical processes in the body such as inflammation, clotting, bronchoconstriction and mucus production |
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where are steroids produced |
-adrenal glands, testes, ovaries |
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what is the most abundant organic molecule in the body? |
proteins |
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what are proteins made up of? |
amino acids |
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which elements are proteins made up of? |
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen |
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functions of proteins |
-cell structure of body tissue -regulating growth and transporting molecules -defending the body against invaders -catalyzing reactions |
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structure of amino acids |
-a central carbon atom attached to a hydrogen atom -an amino group -a carboxyl group -a unique group of atoms called a side chain designed by the letter R |
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the R group of the amino acid |
-the r group defines each amino acid -the side chain depends on the amino acid |
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what orders the specific combination of amino acids? |
the cell's dna |
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how many different amino acids are used in the body? |
20 |
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peptide bond |
the bond by which a carboxyl group of one amino acid links with the other amino groups of another amino acid |
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dipeptide |
a short chain of 2 amino acids |
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tripeptide |
a chain of 3 amino acids linked together |
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polypeptide |
a chain of 10 or more amino acids linked together |
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protein |
when a chain exceeds 100 amino acids |
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primary structure of proteins |
the sequence and number of amino acids that link together to form the peptide chain |
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the secondary structure of proteins |
-the natural bend of parts in the peptide chain as it forms in three dimensions -most common shapes are alpha helix and beta-pleated sheet |
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the most common shapes of the secondary structure of proteins |
-alpha helix (slinky toy shape) -beta-pleated sheet (an accordion shape) |
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the tertiary structure of proteins |
the overall shape of a single protein molecule |
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the quaternary structure of proteins |
-when two or more protein chains join to form a complex macromolecule |
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disulfide bond |
when a sulfur atom in one part of a protein covalently bonds to a sulfur atom in another part of the protein |
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structural proteins |
-stable, rigid, water-insoluble proteins that are used for added strength to tissues or cells -often have a long stringy shape |
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structural proteins are aka |
fibrous proteins because they often have a long stringy shape |
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examples of structural proteins |
-collagen (the main protein in connective tissues like ligaments, cartilage, bone and tendons) -fibrin (fibrous connective tissue in blood clots) -keratin (the main protein in hair, hooves, horns, and outer layers of skin) |
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collagen |
-structural protein/fibrous protein -the main protein in connective tissues like ligaments, cartilage, bone, and tendons |
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keratin |
-structural proteins/fibrous proteins -the main protein in hair, hooves, horns and outer layer of skin |
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fibrin |
-structural proteins/fibrous proteins -the fibrous connective tissue in blood clots |
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functional proteins |
-generally water-soluble and have a flexible 3D shape, which can change under different circumstances -aka globular proteins -highly chemically active molecules
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functional proteins are aka |
globular proteins because they have a convoluted changeable shape |
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examples of functional proteins |
-hemoglobin -antibodies -protein-based hormones -enzymes |
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enzymes |
-proteins that catalyze or speed of chemical reactions without being destroyed or altered and are specific to the reaction that they catalyze (or their substrates) -functional proteins/globular proteins |
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substrates |
the substances enzymes act upon |
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how enzymes/substrates work |
-via a lock and key method -an enzyme fits its substrates exactly and is itself unaltered at the end of the reaction |
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hyperthermia |
-elevated body temperature -example causes include fever, heatstroke, prolonged seizures |
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denaturation of proteins |
-when the hydrogen bonds holding proteins in their tertiary and quaternary structures are broken the proteins are released from their complex structures and stretch into a straight chain of amino acids -because they no longer have their unique shape these proteins lose their function |
