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310 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What occurs in myelinated axons and is much faster than continuous propagation? |
Saltatory Propagation |
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What is the site where neurons communicate with another cell? |
The synapse |
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What are chemical messengers that transfer information in the synapse? |
Neurotransmitters |
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In how many directions does communication happen? |
One direction only |
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What is a synapse between a neuron and another cell type called? |
Neuroeffector junction |
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What is a junction between a neuron and a muscle cell called? |
Neuromuscular junction |
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What is a junction between a neuron and a secretory cell? |
Neuroglandular junction |
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Which neuron is on the sending side of a synapse? |
Presynaptic neuron |
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What holds vesicles containing neurotransmitters? |
Axon terminal |
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When neurotransmitters are released where do they diffuse? |
Across the synaptic cleft |
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What is the neuron on the receiving side of the synapse? |
Postsynaptic neuron |
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What is the distinguishable factor between presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron? |
Presynaptic neuron has axon terminals that contain neurotransmitters, whereas postsynaptic neuron has receptors for the neurotransmitters |
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Where is acetylcholine released? |
Released at cholinergic synapse |
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Is the concentration of calcium ions higher inside the presynaptic neuron or higher outside of the presynaptic neuron ? |
Higher outside of the presynaptic neuron |
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What happens when action potential reaches the presynaptic neuron? |
Causes the voltage gated ion channels found in the synaptic membrane to allow calcium ions to flow from outside to inside of the cell |
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What type of transport do voltage gated ions perform? |
Passive transport |
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What type of diffusion do voltage gated ion channels use to allow calcium ions to enter the neuron ? |
Facilitated diffusion |
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What happens as the concentration of calcium ions in the cell increases? |
Synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane and release acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis |
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Is exocytosis active or passive transport? |
Active |
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What happens after acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft? |
Acetylcholine then binds to the acetylcholine receptors on the postsynaptic neuron |
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What do acetylcholine receptors act like? |
Chemically regulated sodium ion channels |
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What is the function of sodium gated ion channels? |
Allow so dim ions yo enter postsynaptic neuron |
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Sodium ions used what type of transport to enter post synaptic neurons? |
Passive transport (facilitated diffusion) |
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As positively charged sodium ions rush into the postsynaptic neuron what happens to membrane potential? |
It becomes depolarized because positively charged ions enter the cell |
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When the cell becomes less negative and more positive? |
Depolarization |
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Where does depolarization occur? |
Postsynaptic neuron |
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What does depolarization do in the postsynaptic neuron? |
Allows threshold to be reached and as threshold is reached action potential is triggered. |
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What happens when action potential is triggered? |
It propagates a long axon terminal of postsynaptic neuron to another target cell |
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Where are voltage gated calcium ion channels found? |
Membrane of presynaptic neuron |
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What do voltage gated calcium ions do? |
Trigger the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft |
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What is a neurotransmitter that is important in the brain and part of the autonomic nervous system? |
Norepinephrine or noradrenaline |
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What are the synapses that release norepinephrine? |
Adrenergic |
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What neurotransmitters function as central nervous system neurotransmitters? |
Dopamine, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), serotonin |
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What are two games that act as neurotransmitters? |
Nitric oxide and carbon dioxide |
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Which neurotransmitters trigger depolarization, increase the probability of reaching threshold and have an excitatory effect? |
Acetylcholine and noradrenaline |
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Which neurotransmitters trigger hyperpolarization, move membrane potential further from threshold and have an inhibitory effect? |
Dopamine, GABA, serotonin |
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What is hyperpolarization? |
Where membrane potential becomes more negative than resting membrane potential |
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What is resting membrane potential of a neuron? |
-70 |
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What prevents action potential from happening? |
Hyperpolarization |
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What happens if all presynaptic neurons that synapse with a postsynaptic neuron release excitatory neurotransmitters? |
An action potential can be reached |
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What happens if all presynaptic neurons that synapse with a postsynaptic neuron release an inhibitory neurotransmitter? |
No action potential can occur |
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What happens if half of the presynaptic neurons that synapse with a postsynaptic neuron release excitatory neurotransmitters and the other half release inhibitory neurotransmitters ? |
They cancel each other out and no action potential occurs |
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What are the majority of our neurons? |
Interneurons |
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Where are the interneurons found? |
Central nervous system |
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The central nervous system includes what two organs? |
Brain and spinal chord |
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What is a mechanism for spreading stimulation to multiple neurons or neuronal pools? |
Divergence |
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What is a mechanism for providing input to a single neuron from multiple sources? |
Convergence |
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What is it called when one presynaptic neuron synapses with 2 postsynaptic neurons? |
Divergence |
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What is it called when multiple presynaptic neurons synapse with one postsynaptic neuron? |
Convergence |
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The brain is responsible for what kind of movement? |
Voluntary |
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Is the movement of your ribs and diaphragm voluntary or involuntary? |
Subconscious |
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What allows for conscious and subconscious control of the same body processes? |
Convergence |
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What are the three layers of specialized membrane? |
Dura mater, pia mater, arachnoid mater |
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What is the function of spinal meninges? |
Provides physical stability and shock absorption |
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What is the tough, fibrous, outermost covering (2layers) around the brain? |
Dura mater |
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What is the outer layer of the dura mater fused to? |
Periosteum of the skull |
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What are folded membranes formed by extensions of the inner layer of the dura mater into the cranial cavity? |
Dural folds |
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What are large collecting veins in the dura mater called? |
Dural sinuses |
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What is the function of dural folds? |
Hold brain in place |
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What is the function of dural sinuses? |
Carry blood from the brain to the heart |
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What is the difference of dura mater in the brain vs the spinal cord? |
Dura mater in the brain is fused to the periosteum of the skull whereas the dura mater in the spinal chord is separated from the vertebrae by epidural space |
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What happens if you inject anesthetic into epidural space? |
Produces temporary paralysis of motor and sensory neurons (used to control pain during childbirth) |
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What is the layer of squamous epithelial cells? |
Arachnoid mater |
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What type of tissue does the epidural space contain? |
Adipose tissue (connective tissue proper) (loose connective tissue) |
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With what is the arachnoid space separated from the dura mater? |
Subdural space |
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What space contains a small amount of lymphatic fluid? |
Subdural space |
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What is the function of lymphatic fluid? |
Reduces friction between layers |
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What is the space underneath the arachnoid mater? |
Subarachnoid space |
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What is the subarachnoid space made of? |
Web of collagen and elastic fibers |
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What is the subarachnoid space filled with? |
Cerebrospinal fluid |
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What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid? |
Acts as shock absorber and transports dissolved gases, nutrients, chemical messengers and waste products |
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What is the innermost meningial layer? |
Pia mater |
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What is the pia mater bound to? |
Firmly bound to the neural tissue underneath |
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Which layer is highly vascularized? |
Pia mater |
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What is the function of pia mater? |
Provides needed oxygen and nutrients to superficial areas of neural cortex |
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What is another name for the neural cortex? |
Cerebral cortex |
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What is the cerebral cortex? |
Gray mater found on the surface of the brain |
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What is the major neural pathway between the brain and peripheral nervous system which also integrates information of its own? |
Spinal cord |
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How does the spinal cord integrate information of its own? |
By controlling spinal reflexes |
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What are the two regions of the spinal cord that are wider in diameter and where nerves supplying limbs branch? |
Cervical enlargement and lumbar enlargement |
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What is the distal end of the spinal cord called? |
Conus medullaris |
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What is a narrow internal passageway filled with cerebrospinal fluid in the soinak cord called ? |
Central canal |
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What is the surface of the spinal cord indented by? |
Posterior median sulcus and deeper anterior median fissure |
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Central canal is lined with what type of cells? |
Ependymal cells (neuroglia) |
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What is a sulcus? |
A shallow groove |
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What is a fissure? |
A deeper groove |
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How many cervical vertebrae are there? |
7 |
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How many thoracic vertebrae are there? |
12 |
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How many lumbar vertebrae are there ? |
5 |
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How many sacral vertebrae are there? |
5 fused together |
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How many coccygeal vertebrae are there? |
3-4 fused together into 1 |
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What part of the vertebrae contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons? |
Dorsal root ganglia |
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What part of the vertebrae contains axons of the sensory neurons? |
Dorsal roots |
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What part of the vertebrae contains motor neuron axons? |
Ventral roots |
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How are the dorsal root and ventral root bound together? |
Bound together into a single spinal nerve |
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Why are spinal nerves mixed nerves? |
Because they contain both sensory and motor fibers |
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What do the sensory neurons do? |
Carry sensory informations to the spinal cord |
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What do motor neuron axons do? |
Convey motor commands to the effectors (muscles or glands) |
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What is central gray mater made up of? |
Glial cells and neuron cell bodies |
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What forms a rough H or butterfly shape in the center of the vertebrae? |
Central gray mater |
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What relates to the function of gray mater? |
Location of nuclei |
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What type of nuclei controls cardiac, smooth muscle and glands? |
Visceral |
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What type of nuclei controls skeletal muscle ? |
Somatic |
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Which horn contains somatic and visceral sensory nuclei? |
Posterior gray horn |
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What horn contains visceral motor neurons? |
Lateral gray horn |
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What horn contains somatic motor nuclei? |
Anterior gray horn |
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What does white mater contain? |
Myelinated and unmyelinated axons |
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What are the three regions of white mater ? |
Posterior, anterior, lateral white columns |
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What type of tracts do white columns contain? |
Ascending tracts to the brain or descending tracts from the brain to the spinal cord |
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What produces myelin in the central nervous system? |
Oligodendrocites |
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What produces myelin in the peripheral nervous system? |
Swann cells |
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What contains almost 90% of the body's neural tissue? |
Brain |
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Do males or females have larger brains? |
Males |
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What are the 6 regions of the brain? |
1. Cerebellum 2. Diencephalon 3. Mid brain 4. Pons 5. Medulla Oblongata 6. Cerebellum |
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What is the cerebral divided into? |
Right and left cerebral hemispheres |
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What are the functions of cerebral? |
1.Conscious thought 2. Sensation 3. Intellectual function 4. Memory storage and processing |
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What are the parts of the Diencephalon? |
1. Thalamus 2. Hypothalamus 3. Epithalamus-pineal gland |
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What does the brain stem consist of? |
1. Mid brain 2. Pons 3. Medulla Oblongata |
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What is the most inferior portion of the brain? |
Cerebellum |
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What is the function of the Cerebellum? |
Adjusts voluntary and involuntary motor activities on basis of sensory information and stored memories of previous movements |
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What are internal cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid and lined with ependymal cells called? |
Ventricles of the brain |
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What are the ventricles of the brain? |
1. 2 lateral ventricles, one on each side of the cerebral hemispheres that drain into the interventricular foramen into the 2. 3rd ventricle in the Diencephalon, which drains through the cerebral aqueduct into the 3. Fourth ventricle which drains into the central canal |
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What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid? |
Surrounds and bathes the exposed surfaces of the central nervous system Cushions brain and spinal cord against physical trauma Transports nutrients, chemicals, and wastes |
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What produces cerebral spinal fluid? |
Choroid plexus |
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What is the choroid plexus? |
A network of permeable capillaries covered by ependymal cells that secrets cerebral spinal fluid |
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What are extentions of the arachnoid mater? |
Arachnoid granulations |
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What is the largest region of the brain? |
Cerebrum |
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What is the superficial layer of gray mater called? |
Cerebral cortex |
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What is gray mater in deeper areas called? |
Basal nuclei |
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What are outer folds of the cerebrum that increase surface area? |
Gyri |
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What is the area of cerebral cortex located deep to the temporal lobe? |
Insula |
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What are the sulci of the brain? |
1. Central sulcus 2. Lateral sulcus 3. Parieto- occipital sulcus |
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Where is the primary motor cortex found? |
In the present real gyrus |
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What is the function of the primary motor cortex? |
Voluntary control of skeletal muscles |
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Who's neurons receive sensory information from touch, temperature, pain, and pressure receptors? |
Primary sensory cortex |
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What receives visual information and in what lobe is it? |
Visual cortex; occipital lobe |
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What receives tastes sensation and what lobe is it? |
Gustatory cortex; frontal |
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What receives auditory and olfactory information and what lobe is it? |
Auditory and olfactory cortex; temporal lobe |
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What monitors activity in primary sensory cortex and allows to recognize touch? |
Somatic sensory association area |
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What is responsible for coordinating learned movements? |
Somatic motor association area or premotor cortex |
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How are left and right hemisphere interconnected? |
By axons across the corpus callosum |
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What integrates sensory information and visual and auditory memory? |
General interpretive area or Wernicke's area |
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What happens when the general interpretive area or Wernicke's area is damaged? |
Affects ability to interpret what is read or heard |
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What regulates breathing and vocalization requires for normal speech? |
Speech center or broca's area |
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What happens when the speech center or broca's area is damaged? |
Affects ability to format words, can still make sounds |
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Where are the speech center and general interpretive centers found? |
Left cerebral hemispheres |
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What coordinates information from associated areas of the entire cortex? |
prefrontal cortex |
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What is the disorder that affects ability to speak and read? |
Aphasia |
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What is a disorder that affects the comprehension and use of words? |
Dyslexia |
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What other functions does the prefrontal cortex perform? |
Abstract intellectual functions and generating feelings of frustration, tension, and anxiety as events are interpreted and predictions are made |
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What is the left hemisphere of the brain responsible for? |
Language skills, analytical tasks, and logical, decision making |
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What is the right hemisphere of the brain involved with? |
Spatial analysis, analysis of sensory input and relating it to the body, emotional context |
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What are electrical patterns called? |
Brain waves |
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What can brain waves be correlated with? |
Levels of consciousness |
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What is an electroencephalogram used for? |
Detecting brain activity in the brain; can provide diagnostic information regarding brain disorders |
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What waves are characteristic of normal resting adults? |
Alpha waves |
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What brain waves are characteristic of intense concentration? |
Beta waves |
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What brain waves are characteristic of children and frustrated adults? |
Theta waves |
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What waves are characteristic of people in deep sleep and in certain pathological conditions? |
Delta waves |
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What are specific bits of information (social security number)? |
Fact memories |
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What are learned motor skill that can become incorporated into unconscious memory? |
Skill memory |
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What are memories that can be recalled immediately and can be converted into long term memories? |
Short term memories |
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How to convert short term memories to long term memories? |
Memory consolidation |
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What are memories that remain for a long time, sometimes an entire lifetime? |
Long term memories |
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What is memory loss as a result of disease or trauma? |
Amnesia |
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Who's function is subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and coordination of learned movements? |
Basal (Cerebral) Nuclei |
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What are the three components of basal nuclei? |
1. Caudate nucleus 2. Lentiform nucleus 3. Amygdaloid body |
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What does the Lentiform contain? |
1. Globulus pallidus 2. Putamen |
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What are the Caudate and Lentiform nuclei together called? |
Corpus striatum |
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What type of grouping is the limbic system? |
Functional |
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What are the parts of the limbic system? |
1. Olfactory cortex 2. Basal nuclei 3. Gyri 4. Tracts between the cerebrum and Diencephalon |
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What are the functions of the limbic system? |
1. Establishes the emotional state 2. Links the conscious with the unconscious functions 3. Aids in long term memory story and retrieval with help of the hippocampus |
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What contains switching and relay centers that integrate conscious and unconscious sensory information and motor commands? |
Diencephalon |
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What are the three components of the Diencephalon? |
1. Epithalamus 2. Thalamus 3. Hypothalamus |
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What is the hippocampus responsible for? |
Long term memory storage |
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Where is the Diencephalon? |
Surrounding the third ventricle |
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What is the anterior part of the Epithalamus? |
Choroid plexus |
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What is the posterior part of the Epithalamus? |
Pineal gland |
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What does the pineal gland secrete? |
Melatonin |
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What is the function of melatonin? |
Regulates day - night cycles |
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What are the left and right Thalamus separated by? |
Third ventricle |
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What is the function of the Thalamus? |
Relay and processing center for sensory information |
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What type of sensory information passes through the Thalamus? |
All sensory information other than olfactory |
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What structure is functionally related to the limbic system and contains centers involved with emotions, autonomic functions and hormone production? |
Hypothalamus |
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What is the primary link between nervous and endocrine systems? |
Pituitary gland connected to Hypothalamus by narrow stalk |
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What are all of the functions of the Hypothalamus? |
1. Subconscious control of skeletal muscle contractions associated with strong emotion 2. Adjusts Pons and Medulla functions 3. Coordinates the nervous and endocrine system 4. Secretes hormones including AD and oxytocin 5. Produces "drives" of thrust and hunger 6. Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions 7. Regulates body temperature 8. Coordinates daily cycles |
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What is a network of nuclei related to the state of wakefulness and other involuntary functions ? |
Reticular formation |
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What contains bundles of depending fibers? |
Cerebral peduncles |
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What influences muscle tone? |
Substantia nigra |
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What happens when there is damage to substantia nigra? |
Causes increasing in muscle tone and symptoms consistent with parkinson's disease |
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What are the symptoms of parkinson's disease? |
Shaking and difficulty in starting voluntary movements because opposing muscle groups cannot relax |
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What links the Cerebellum with the mid brain, Diencephalon, cerebrum and spinal cord? |
Pons |
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What does the Pons contain? |
Sensory and motor nuclei for cranial nerves 5,6,7, and 8 |
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What is the automatic processing center? |
Cerebellum |
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What are the functions of the Cerebellum? |
1. Adjusts voluntary and involuntary motor activities based on sensory input and stored memories 2. Adjusts postural muscles to maintain balance 3. Programs and fine-tune movement |
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What are tracts that link the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and brain stem called? |
Cerebellar peduncles |
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What is the disturbance of balance that can be caused by damage to the Cerebellum? |
Ataxia |
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What connects the brain to the spinal cord and contains reflex centers? |
Medulla Oblongata |
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What does the Medulla Oblongata contain? |
Sensory and motor nuclei for cranial nerves 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 |
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What adjust heart rate and contraction strength and peripheral blood flow? |
Cardiovascular centers |
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What regulates respiratory rate? |
Respiratory rhythmicity centers |
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What does the cardiovascular centers contain? |
1. Cardiac center that adjusts heart rate and contraction strength 2. Vasomotor center that adjusts peripheral blood flow |
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Damage to which root would interfere with motor function? |
Ventral (anterior) |
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Which senses would be effected by damage to the temporal lobe? |
Hearing and smelling |
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What links the CBS to the rest of the body through peripheral nerves? |
Peripheral Nervous system |
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What type of nerves originate from the brain? |
Cranial nerves |
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What type of nerves connect to the spinal cord? |
Spinal nerves |
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Where are cell bodies of sensory and motor neurons contained? |
Ganglia |
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What do nerves contain? |
Contain axons of motor and sensory neurons |
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How do we call the collections of cell bodies of the neurons in the central nervous system? |
Nuclei |
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What are the bundles of axons from nuclei called? |
Tracts |
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What are the only nerves connected to the cerebrum? |
Olfactory |
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What is the function of the olfactory nerve? |
Carries sensory information concerning the sense of smell |
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What is the function of the optic nerve? |
Carries sensory information from the eyes through the optic forms in a of the orbits to the optic chasm |
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What lobe contains the gustatory cortex? |
Frontal |
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What lobe contains the optic cortex? |
Occipital |
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What is the function of the oculomotor nerves? |
Inner vase four of the six intrinsic eye muscles that move the eyeball and the intrinsic eye muscles that control the size of the pupils |
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What is the function of the trochlear nerves? |
Inner ate the superior oblique muscles of the eyes |
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What are the three branches of the trigeminal nerve? |
1. Ophthalmic provides sensory input from the orbit sinuses, nasal cavity, skin of for head, nose, eyebrows, and eyelids 2. Maxillary provides sensory input from the lower eyelid, upper lip, check, nose, upper gums and teeth 3. Mandibular provides sensory input from skin of the temples, lower gums of teeth, salivary glands and tongue and motor control of chewing |
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What is the function of abducens nerve? |
Innervate only the lateral rectus muscle |
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What is the function of the facial nerves? |
Provides taste information from anterior two thirds of the tongue, facial expression and control tear and salivary glands |
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What is the awareness of the positions of the muscles, joints and bones? |
Proprioception |
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What is the function of the vestibulocochlear nerve? |
Responds to sensory receptors in the ear |
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What is the function of the vestibular nerve? |
Conveys information about balance and position |
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What is the function of cochlear nerve? |
Conveys information related to sense of hearing |
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What is the function of the glossopharyngeal nerve? |
Sensory portion Provides taste sensation from posterior of the tongue Monitors blood pressure and blood gases Motor portion Controls pharyngitis muscles used in swallowing and part is salivary gland secretion |
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What is the function of the vagus nerve? |
Sensory portion Information provided is vital to autonomic control of visceral functions Motor portion Control skeletal muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, and esophagus and affect cardiac muscle smooth muscle, and digestive glands |
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What if the function of the accessory nerves? |
Innervate structures in the neck and back |
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What is the function of the hypoglossal nerves? |
Provide voluntary motor control over the tongue |
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How many cervical nerves are there? |
8 pairs, c1-c8 |
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How many thoracic nerves are there? |
12 pairs, t1-t12 |
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How many lumbar nerves are there? |
5 pairs, l1- l5 |
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How many sacral nerves are there? |
5 pairs, s1-s5 |
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How many coccygeal nerves are there? |
1 pair, Co1 |
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What does the cervical plexus innervate? |
Muscles of the neck and the diaphragm |
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What do nerve trunks contain? |
Axons derived from several spinal nerves |
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What does the brachial plexus innervate? |
Pectoral girdles and upper limbs |
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What does the lumbar and sacral plexus innervate? |
Pelvic girdle and lower limbs |
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What is a specific region of the body surface motioned by a pair of spinal nerves? |
Dermatome |
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Why is the dermatome clinically important? |
Determining location of damaging or infection of a spinal nerve |
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Which nerve has no dermatome? |
C1 |
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What are rapid responses to specific stimuli? |
Reflexes |
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How do reflexes help preserve homeostasis? |
With rapid adjustment |
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What type of reflect involve only one synapse? |
Monosynaptic neuron that form between a sensory and motor neuron |
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What is a wiring of a single reflex called? |
Reflex arc |
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What is another name for sensory neurons? |
Afferent |
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What is another words for motor neuron? |
Efferent |
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What is the main function of reflex? |
Removes or opposes original stimulus |
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What is the best know monosynaptic reflex? |
Patellar reflex or knee her controlled by stretch receptors |
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What muscle is related to the knee jet reflex? |
Quadriceps femoris |
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What type of reflexes have at least one interneuron? |
Polysynaptic |
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Between polysynaptic and monosynaptic which have longer delays but can activate more than on effector? |
Polysynaptic |
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What are reflexes that move a body part away from the stimulation? |
Withdrawal reflex, flexor reflex |
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What is it called when antagonistic muscles are inhibited and prevents stretch reflex in the antagonist, ensures that flexion (withdrawl) is not interfered with ? |
Reciprocal inhibition |
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What is the sign that involves stroking an infants sole, resulting in fanning of the toes? |
Babinski sign |
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What maneuver overemphasizes patellar reflex? |
Jendrassik |
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What happens to foot reflex as descending inhibitory synapses develop? |
An adult will respond by curling toes instead called plantar flexion negative Babinski |
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Is the positive babinski reflex abnormal in adults? |
Yes, indicates that higher brain centers or descending tracts are damaged |
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What type of neurons do descending tracts contain? |
Motor |
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What are ascending pathways? |
Sensory pathways |
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What pathway carries fine touch pressure vibration and proprioception ? |
Posterior column pathways |
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How is primary sensory information carried? |
The sensory information is carried from the right side of the body to the primary sensory cortex of the left cerebral hemisphere |
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Where is the primary sensory cortex located? |
Parietal lobe |
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What are third order neurons? |
Axons of the Thalamus |
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What are the steps of the sensory pathway? |
1. The sensory axons (first order neurons) ascend in the posterior column of white matter in the spinal cord 2. The axons of the second order neurons cross over to the other side of the brain before ascending 3. The third order neurons carry information from the Thalamus to the sensory cortex of the cerebral hemisphere |
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What is a miniature map of the body surface over lain on cortex with size relative to number of sensory receptors in the region? |
Sensory homunculus |
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Does front or back have less touch receptors? |
Back |
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Which pathway delivers poorly localized sensation of touch pressure pain, and temperature to the primary sensory cortex? |
Spinothalamic pathway |
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Which pathway delivers proprioceptive information concerning the positions of muscles, bones, and joints to the cerebellar cortex? |
Spinocerebellar |
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What pathways are part of the extra pyramidal system ? |
Medial and lateral |
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Which pathway provides conscious voluntary control of skeletal muscles ? |
Corticospinal |
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What is the map of the body surface over lain on cortex with size relative to number of motor units in the region? |
Motor homunculus |
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How are motor neurons carried? |
From the primary motor cortex of the left cerebral hemisphere to the skeletal muscles found on the right side of the body |
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What lobe contains the primary motor cortex? |
Frontal |
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What are the steps of the motor pathway? |
1. The descending axons form the corticospinal tracts that descend within the brain stem 2. The axons in the corticospinal tracts cross to the opposite side either in the brain stem or within the spinal cord |
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What pathways provide subconscious control of the skeletal muscle tone? |
Medial and lateral pathways |
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What is a motor unit? |
One motor neuron and all the skeletal muscles it innervate |
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What division of the PNS is subdivided into the autonomic and voluntary nervous system |
Efferent |
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How many motor neurons does the SNS require? |
One |
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How many motor neurons does the ANS require? |
Two |
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What does the SNS effect? |
Skeletal muscles |
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What does the ANS effect? |
Cardiac and smooth muscle, glands, fat cells |
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What are the motor neurons associated with the ANS? |
1. Preganglionic neurons communicate with (who's axons are called Preganglionic fibers) 2. Ganglionic neurons (whose axons are called postganglionic fibers) |
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What is it called when Preganglionic fibers leave thoracic and lumbar spine? (Short Preganglionic fibers, Long postganglionic fibers) near spinal chord |
Sympathetic division |
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What is it called with Preganglionic fibers originate in brain stem and sacral spinal region? (Long Preganglionic fibers, short postganglionic fibers) located near or within target organs |
Parasympathetic division |
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What are all Preganglionic fibers? |
Cholinergic |
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What does it mean to be cholinergic? |
Release acetylcholine |
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What are the effects of Preganglionic fibers? |
Always excitatory |
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What are postganglionic parasympathetic fibers? |
Cholinergic |
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What are the effects of postganglionic fibers? |
Excitatory, inhibitory, depending on target cell receptor |
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What are postganglionic sympathetic fibers? |
Adrenergic |
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What does it mean to be adrenergic? |
Release norepinephrine |
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Where does the sympathetic chain arise from? |
T1-L2 |
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Where do Preganglionic fibers enter the sympathetic chain ganglia? |
Just outside the spinal column |
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What are unpaired ganglia that receive splanchnic nerves from the lower thoracic and upper lumbar segments? |
Collateral ganglia |
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What are paired ganglia? |
Sympathetic chain ganglia |
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What is the center of each adrenal gland? |
Adrenal Medulla |
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Where does the adrenal Medulla secret norepinephrine and epinephrine? |
Into capillaries functioning as an endocrine gland |
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What is the sympathetic division called? |
Fight or flight division |
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What are the functions of the sympathetic division? |
1. Increases alertness, metabolic rate, sweating, heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles 2. Dilated respiratory brochioles and pupils 3. Blood flow to digestive organs is decreased 4. Epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal Medulla support and prolog the effect |
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Where do Preganglionic neurons arise from? |
The brain stem and sacral spinal cord |
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What does the Preganglionic fibers of the sacral areas form? |
Pelvic nerves |
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What is the parasympathetic division called? |
Rest and digest division |
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What's the difference between parasympathetic and sympathetic? |
There is less divergence in the parasympathetic so effects are more localized |
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What are the effects of the parasympathetic division? |
1. Constricts pupils, increases digestive secretions, increases digestive tract smooth muscle, activity 2. Stimulates urination and defecation 3. Constricts brochioles, decreases heart rate |
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Why is there a reduction of brain size and weight with age? |
Due to decrease in the volume of cerebral cortex |
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What happens with aging? |
1. Reduction in brain size 2. Reduction in number of neurons 3. Decrease in blood flow to the brain 4. Change in synaptic organization of the brain 5. Increase in intercellular deposits and extracellular plaques |
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What is dementia? |
Memory loss |
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What is the main cause of dementia? |
Alzheimer's Disease |
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What is alzheimer's Disease? |
Disorder that gradually degrades person's memory and ability to think |
