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68 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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learning
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the process by which experiences change the CNS and then changes behavior
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_______ occurs through learning
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Altering the neuro circuits
dendrite growth |
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4 types of learning
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1. Stimulus response learning
2. Motor learning 3. Perceptual Learning 4. rational spatial learning |
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Stimulus-Response (S-R) Learning
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learning to automatically make a particular response in the presence of a particular stimulus
Classical conditioning (learning through association) Instrumental conditioning Reinforcement |
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Motor Learning
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learning to make a new response
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learning
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the process by which experiences change the CNS and then changes behavior
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_______ occurs through learning
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Altering the neuro circuits
dendrite growth |
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4 types of learning
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1. Stimulus response learning
2. Motor learning 3. Perceptual Learning 4. rational spatial learning |
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Stimulus-Response (S-R) Learning
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learning to automatically make a particular response in the presence of a particular stimulus
Classical conditioning (learning through association) Instrumental conditioning Reinforcement |
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Motor Learning
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learning to make a new response
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Perceptual Learning
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learning that involves recognizing a stimulus – the ability to recognize and categorize information
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Relational (spatial) Learning
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learning about the relations among many stimuli
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Classical Conditioning
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An unimportant stimulus acquires the properties of an important one
association between two stimuli |
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Hebb Rule
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Classical Conditioning
If a synapse repeatedly becomes active at the same time that the postsynaptic neuron fires, a change will take place in the structure or chemistry of the synapse that strengthens it A physiological explanation for learning: Neurons in the brain change from experiences, causes our behavior to change |
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Structure of the brain related to classical conditioning
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Central nucleus of amygdala = conditioned emotional response
Aversive stimuli (e.g. fear conditioning) |
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Instrumental Conditioning
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A learning procedure whereby the effects of a particular behavior in a particular situation increase (reinforce) or decrease (punish) the probability of the behavior
Association between stimulus and response *Involves learned behaviors (versus species-typical behaviors in classical conditioning) |
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Instrumental Conditioning and the Basal Ganglia
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. lesions of caudate nucleus disrupt acquisition of simple
The basal ganglia are involved in the learning of automated and routine behaviors instrumental conditioning tasks in monkeys (does not affect other forms of learning) |
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Reinforcement
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Reinforcement causes changes in the N.S. that increase the likelihood that a particular stimulus will elicit a particular response
EX: Skinner’s box – rat pressing lever for food |
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Olds and Milner (1973):
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found that stimulation of parts of the brain is reinforcing
Rats would perform a response that caused electrical current to be delivered through an electrode placed in their brain Subsequent studies confirmed several brain regions in which stimulation is reinforcing |
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Medial forebrain bundle
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produced strongest and most reliable reinforcing effects
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classical versus instrumental
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Classical: Association BTWN 2 stimuli
Instrumental: stimulus and response |
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The Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB)
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bundle of axons that travel in a rostral-caudal axis from the midbrain to the rostral basal forebrain
passes through the lateral hypothalamus Electrical stimulation of MFB axons is reinforcing Activity of dopaminergic neurons plays an important role 2 of the 3 dopaminergic systems |
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Mesolimbic system
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Ventral tegmental area (VTA) nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus
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Mesocortical system
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VTA prefrontal cortex, limbic cortex, hippocampus
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Reinforcement occurs when
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neural circuits detect a reinforcing stimulus and cause the activation of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA
<>Activated by unexpected reinforcing stimuli <>Activation of these neurons tell other circuits in the brain that there is something to be learned |
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Dopaminergic reinforcement system:
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amygdala
lateral hypothalamus prefrontal cortex |
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Motor Learning
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Motor learning involves learning to make a new response
Establishment of changes within motor systems Cannot occur without sensory guidance from the environment stimulus perceptual learning (S-R learning) motor learning response Differs from other forms of learning—the degree to which new forms of behavior are learned The more novel the behavior, the more neural circuits in the motor systems of the brain must be modified |
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Perceptual Learning
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identify and categorize objects and situations
Each sensory system is capable of perceptual learning Sensory system NT = ACh |
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first neurons to degenerate
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ACh
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Visual perceptual learning
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pattern discrimination
Changes in synaptic connections in the visual association cortex that establish new neural circuits |
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Dorsal and Ventral stream
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Dorsal Stream = the “where” of visual perception
Perception and location of objects Posterior parietal cortex Ventral Stream = the “what” of visual perception Object recognition Inferior temporal cortex Damage = person will not recognize what they just saw e.g. damage to face neurons = prosopagnosia |
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Visual Short-Term Memory
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7 +/- 2 bits of information
Prefrontal cortex = STM for all sensory modalities Ventral stream = STM for visual patterns Dorsal stream = STM for location Visual association cortex = encode STM for visual stimuli |
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Auditory Learning
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Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN)
ACh is the primary NT involved in auditory learning ACh is released auditory cortex is “hyper-alert” to sound neurons become more sensitive (“preps” auditory cortex) to facilitate learning |
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Dopamine involved in
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Pleasure and reinforcement
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Relational (spatial) Learning
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Hippocampus:
Lesions disrupt the ability to keep track of and remember spatial locations R hippocampal formation = remembering or performing a navigational task Cab driver studies – larger R posterior hippocampus than controls Hippocampal lesions disrupt navigation in homing pigeons |
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Nucleus encumbens
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amphetamine and cocaine
sex behaviors reinforceing these above areas |
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Synaptic Plasticity
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plasticity—changes in the structure or biochemistry of synapses that alter their effects on postsynaptic neurons
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Long-term potentiation (LTP):
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a long-term increase in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input caused by repeated high-frequency activity of that input
LTP of the hippocampal formation can lead to long-term synaptic changes among those responsible for learning |
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Hippocampus and learning
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is involved heavily in Hebbian learning
Entorhinal cortex Perforant path Dentate gyrus |
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Stimulation of hippocampus
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long-term physiological changes responsible for learning and memory
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Hippocampus formation
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a specialized region of the limbic cortex located in the temporal lobe
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Output and input of the hippocampus
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a specialized region of the limbic cortex located in the temporal lobe
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Typical procedure for producing LTP in the hippocampal formation
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Electrically stimulate axons in perforant path
Record resulting population EPSP in dentate gyrus Larger EPSP = stronger synaptic connection Stronger synaptic connection = the more learning that occurred |
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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
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LTP requires 2 events:
activation of the synapse Depolarization/excitation of postsynaptic neuron Calcium entry is an essential step! NMDA (glutamate receptor) controls calcium ion channels these channels are both NT- and voltage-dependent |
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Strengthening of an individual synapse is accomplished by
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the insertion of additional AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane of the dendritic spine
AMPA receptors control sodium channels—produce EPSPs when activated by glutamate The more AMPA receptors present, the larger EPSP produced Accompanied by structural changes in the shape of the dendritic spine (perforated postsynaptic densities) May represent an intermediate step in the splitting of a single synapse into two or more synapses |
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Anterograde amnesia
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inability to remember events that occur after brain damage
Difficulty learning new information Damage of hippocampus or to regions that supply its inputs and receive its outputs HM – STM is okay |
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Perceptual learning is when
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sites, sounds smells reminds them of something from the past
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Retrograde amnesia
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: inability to remember events that occurred before the brain damage
usually accompanies anterograde |
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Korsakoff’s Syndrome
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Severe anterograde amnesia caused by chronic alcoholism or malnutrition
B1 (thiamine) deficiency Symptoms: unable to form new memories, confabulations Damage: degeneration of mammillary bodies (hypothalamus) Thiamine deficiency – alcohol interferes with intestinal absorption of thiamine (leads to brain damage |
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Retrograde Amnesia and damage
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Duration = amount of damage to medial temporal lobe
No retrograde amnesia = damage to only field CA1 Minor retrograde amnesia (limited to a decade before damage) = lesions limited to hippocampal formation Severe retrograde amnesia (several decades before damage) = lesions of limbic cortex of medial temporal lobe AND hippocampal formation |
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3 Main Findings from HM
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Hippocampus is NOT the location of LTM; nor is it necessary for the retrieval of LTM
Hippocampus is NOT the location of STM Hippocampus is involved in converting STM to LTM The role of the hippocampal formation in memory is consolidation! |
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The role of hippocampal formation is
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memory consolidation
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Memory can be divided into 2 broad categories
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Declarative
Nondeclarative (procedural) |
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Declarative Memory
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Explicit, CONSCIOUS
A memory that can be verbally expressed e.g. memory for events in a person’s past Persons with anterograde amnesia cannot form declarative memories |
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Declarative Memory and the Hippocampus
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The hippocampus receives information, processes it, and modifies the memories being consolidated
L hippocampal formation = verbal information; ability to remember a list of words R hippocampal formation = pictorial or spatial information All structures of the medial temporal lobe appear to contribute to the consolidation of declarative memories |
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3 Main Findings from HM
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Hippocampus is NOT the location of LTM; nor is it necessary for the retrieval of LTM
Hippocampus is NOT the location of STM Hippocampus is involved in converting STM to LTM The role of the hippocampal formation in memory is consolidation! |
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The role of hippocampal formation is
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memory consolidation
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Memory can be divided into 2 broad categories
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Declarative
Nondeclarative (procedural) |
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Declarative Memory
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Explicit, CONSCIOUS
A memory that can be verbally expressed e.g. memory for events in a person’s past Persons with anterograde amnesia cannot form declarative memories |
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Declarative Memory and the Hippocampus
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The hippocampus receives information, processes it, and modifies the memories being consolidated
L hippocampal formation = verbal information; ability to remember a list of words R hippocampal formation = pictorial or spatial information All structures of the medial temporal lobe appear to contribute to the consolidation of declarative memories |
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Nondeclarative Memory
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Implicit, UNCONSCIOUS
Memory whose formation does not depend on the hippocampal formation Collective term for perceptual, S-R, and motor memory e.g. riding a bike, driving a car May involve the basal ganglia and cerebellum |
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Visual memories are stored in
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Inferior temporal cortex
will have diff. time identifying what the object is |
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short term memory
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most takes place in prefrontal cortex
like attention |
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critical in understanding maps
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spatial learning
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memory is stored as
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a pattern of neuron activation
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____ is responsible for learning and memory
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long term physiological changes
caused by intense electrical stimulation of the caused a long term increase in the post excitory process long term potentiation |
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long term potentiator requires special receptor
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MNDA
--it is Ionotropic glutamate --found in hippocampus --controls calcium ion channels |
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calcium channel will open under two things
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membrane is depolarized
glutamate is present |
