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113 Cards in this Set
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endocrine system
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* assists in the regulation of metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, response to stress, and numerous other body functions
* performs the same general functions as the nervous system; communication and control * provides slower but longer-lasting control by way of hormones (chemicals) secreted into and circulated by the blood and impacts larger areas of the body than the nervous system. * organs of the endocrine system are located in : neck, cranial, thoracic, and abdominal and pelvic cavities. * all organs of the endocrine system are glands ** but NOT all glands are organs of the endocrine system * * only endocrine glands belong to the endocrine system. * communicates through chemical hormones that circulate in the bloodstream until they reach a target organ or organs * consists of glands and hormones |
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exocrine glands
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* secrete chemicals into ducts that empty onto a surface such as the exterior of the body or into a cavity; they do not circulate through the body.
* NOT part of the endocrine system * associated with the skin * do not secrete hormones ie. sweat glands, salivary glands, sudoriferous glands |
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endocrine glands
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* only endocrine glands belong to the endocrine system.
* ductless glands * secrete chemicals known as hormones into intercellular spaces. from there the hormones diffuse directly into the bloodstream and are carried throughout the body. * most endocrine glands do not store their hormones but instead secrete them directly into the blood as they are produced. Endocrine glands: 1. Hypothalamus 2. Pituitary 3. Pineal 4. Thyroid - secretes thyroxine 5. Parathryroids 6. Thymus 7. Adrenals 8. Pancratic islets 9. Ovaries - female 10. Testes - male |
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target organ cell
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* each hormone molecule may then bind to a cell that has specific receptors for that hormone, triggering a reaction in the cell called a target organ cell to perform a specific function.
* sometimes call signal transduction * cell acted upon by a particular hormone and responding to it. |
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hormones
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* main regulators of metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and many other body activities
* are secreted in small amounts, as they are very powerful * are released by secretory cells into the extracellular space and enter the bloodstream by diffusion * play important roles in stress, infection, fluid and electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance * play an important role in maintaining homeostasis - fluid and electrolyte, acid-base, and energy balances. * make the difference between normalcy and and abnormalities such as dwarfism, gigantism and sterility. * important for survival of the human species * influence and control activities of widely separated organs * With the exception of sex hormones and those from the adrenal cortex, all hormones in the human body are nonsteroid hormones two major classes of hormones that differ in the mechanisms by which they influence target organ cells: 1. nonsteroid hormones - (protein in book) 2. steroid hormones |
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diseases of the endocrine system
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* tumors or other abnormalities often cause a gland to secrete too much or too little hormone.
ie. hypersecretion or hypersecretion * a variety of endocrine disorders that appear to result from hypersecretion are actually caused by a problem in the target cells. diseases: gigantism, acromegaly, and dwarfism. |
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hypersecretion
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* production of too much hormone by a diseased gland
* too much of a substance is being secreted |
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hyposcretion
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* production of too little hormone produced by a diseased gland.
* too little of a substance is being secreted. * could be a lack of of target cell response or target cell insensitivity. ie. diabetes mellitus |
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nonsteroid hormones
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* whole proteins, shorter chains of amino acids, or simply version of single amino acids that are water soluble.
* The interaction between nonsteroid hormones and receptor proteins activates a cascade of chemical reactions resulting in the target cell's response to the hormone. * Nonsteroid hormones serve as "first messengers" by providing communication between an endocrine gland and a membrane receptor of the target organ * Because they are soluble in water only, they cannot pass through the lipid plasma membrane * nonsteroid hormone action is that they work according to the second-messenger mechanism. * must have cellular receptor proteins at the surface of plasma membrane * Nonsteroid hormones have a quick response * With the exception of sex hormones and those from the adrenal cortex, all hormones in the human body are nonsteroid hormones |
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second-messenger mechanism
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providing communication within a hormones target cells.
1. concept where a protein hormone, such as thyroid-stimulating hormone, acts as a "first messenger" . 2. after the hormone is attached to its specific receptor site a number of chemical reactions occur. 3. these reactions activate molecules within the cell called second messengers. ie. cyclic AMP - the hormone-receptor interaction changes energy-rich ATP molecules inside the cell into cyclic AMP |
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first messenger mechanism
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* a protein hormone that delivers its chemical message from the cells of an endocrine gland to highly specific first membrane receptor sites on the cells of a target organ ie. lock-and-key model
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cyclic AMP
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* a second-messenger mechanism delivering information inside the cell that regulates the cell's activity.
* adenosine monophosphate ie. cyclic AMP causes thyroid cells to respond to the thyroid-stimulated hormone by secreting a thyroid hormone such as thyroxine |
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steroid hormones
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* do not occur by the second-messenger mechanism
* slow to act compared to responses triggered by nonsteroid hormones. * may also produce a variety of secondary effects that usually appear much more rapidly than do the primary steroid effects. * small, lipid-soluble steroid hormones such as estrogen that can pass intact directly through the cell membrane of the target organ cell and enter the nucleus * are the sex hormones, such as the androgens estrogen and progesterone, and the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the corticoids ie. estrogen might effect breast development in the female adolescent. |
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anabolic steroid hormones
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* stimulates the building of large molecules (anabolism).
* leads to an increase in the production of testosterone * stimulate the building of proteins in muscle and bones. * increases the mass and strength of skeletal muscles. * synthetic substances that are related to the male sex hormones * often abused by athletes to enhance performance - called doping * promote the release of the growth hormone, which stimulates growth, especially skeletal growth |
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negative feedback mechanisms
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* a homeostatic mechanism in the endocrine system
* Most homeostatic control loops involve negative feedback * occurs when the result of a process influences the operation of the process itself in such a way as to reduce changes * mechanism that reverses the dirction of a change in a physiological system by inhibition. * tends to make a system self-regulating; it can produce stability and reduce the effect of fluctuations ie. when released from edocrine cells in the pancreas insulin lowers blood sugar levels |
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positive feedback mechanisms
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* uncommon, amplify changes rather than reverse them
* Stimulatory * threatens homeostasis, but sometimes can help the body maintain stability. * process in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation * That is, A produces more of B which in turn produces more of ie. during labor, the muscle contractions that push the baby through the birth canal become stronger by means of a positive feedback mechanism that regulates secretion of the hormone oxytocin. |
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polyendocrine disorders
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* disorders resulting from hypersecretion or hyposecretion of several hormones
* imbalances of one type of hormone often affect other hormones as well |
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endocrinologists
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scientist who specialize in the study of the endocrine functions
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prostaglandins (PGs) or tissue hormones
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* tissue hormones, are important and extremely powerful substance found in a wide variety of tissues.
* play an important role in communication and in the control of many body functions * produced in small amounts and have an immediate, short-term, and localized effect * do not meet the definition of a typical hormone. * mostly produced in a tissue and then diffuse only a short distance to act on cells within that tissue. (neighboring cells only) * most prostaglandins regulate cells by influencing the production of cyclic AMP * thought to increase the sensitivity of pain nerve endings. * aspirin and its derivatives produce some of their effects by blocking prostaglandins involved in the inflammation process. three classifications of prostaglandins: 1. prostaglandin A (PGA) 2. prostaglandin E (PGE) 3. prostaglandin F (PGF) * can influence respiration, blood pressure, gastrointestinal secretions, and the reproductive system, and may be used in the treatment of high blood pressure, asthma, and ulcers |
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three classifications of prostaglandins:
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1. prostaglandin A (PGA)
2. prostaglandin E (PGE) 3. prostaglandin F (PGF) * influence respiration, blood pressure, gastrointestinal secretions, inflammation, and the reproductive system. * believed that PGs regulate cells by influencing the production of cyclic AMP * used in treatment of high blood pressure, asthma, and ulcers. ie. aspirin alters the function of PGs |
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pharmacology
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the study of drug actions b pharmacologists
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Pituitary Gland or hypophysis
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* small mighty structure, smaller than a pea
* lies beneath the hypothalamus; lies buried deep in the cranial cavity in the small depression of the sphenoid bone that is shaped like a saddle and called the sella turcica * secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands and influence growth, metabolism, and maturation. * referred to as the master gland of the endocrine system * it secretes several hormones that collectively influence the majority of cells and physiological processes. it is really two endocrine glands: 1. adenohypophysis or anterior pituitary gland - structure of an endocrine gland gland 2. neurohypophysis or posterior pituitary gland - structure of nervous tissue |
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sella turcica (turkish saddle)
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* small depression of the sphenoid bone that is shaped like a saddle and called the sella turcica
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pituitary stalk
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* stemlike structure, that attaches the gland to the undersurface of the brain
* attaches the pituitary body to the hypothalamus. |
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Anterior Pituitary gland or adenohypophysis
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aka. once called the master gland but not any more
* secretions are controlled by the hypothalamus and other mechanisms * exerts control over the function of the thyroid gland, the adrenal cortex, the ovarian follicles, and the corpus luteum secretes major hormones: 1. tropic hormone a. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - thyroid gland b. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - adrenal gland c. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - estrogen d. Luteinizing hormone (LH) - ovulating hormone 2. Growth Hormone (GH) - increases in blood glucose 3. prolactin or lactogenic hormone (PRL) - breast development for lactation. |
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tropic hormone
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* stimulates another endocrine gland to grow and secrete its hormones.
a. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - thyroid gland b. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - adrenal gland c. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - estrogen d. Luteinizing hormone (LH) - ovulating hormone ie. tropic hormones from the anterior pituitary gland stimulate the production of the thyroid hormone. |
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Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
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* acts on the thyroid gland
* stimulates the thyroid gland to increase secretion of thyroid hormone |
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adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
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* acts on the adrenal cortex
* stimulates the adrenal cortex to increase in size and to secrete larger amounts of its hormones, especially cortisol (hydrocortisone) |
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Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
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* stimulates the primary ovarian follicles in an ovary to start growing and to continue developing to maturity or ovulation
* stimulates follicle cells to secrete estrogen in females * stimulates the seminiferous tubules to grow and form sperm |
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Luteinizing hormone (LH) (ovulating hormone)
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* stimulates a follicle and ovum to complete their growth to maturity
* stimulates follicle cells to secrete estrogens causing ovulation * stimulates the formation of a golden body, the corpus luteum in the ruptured follicle called luteinization. * as it promotes luteinization, it stimulates the corpus luteum to produce the hormone progesterone * male pituitary gland also secretes LH that stimulates interstitial cells in the testes to develop and secrete testosterone, the male sex hormone |
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ovulation
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rupturing of the mature follicle with expulsion of its ripe ovum
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luteinization
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* stimulates the formation of a golden body, the corpus luteum in the ruptured follicle
* begins with the formation of the corpus luteum and ends in either pregnancy or luteolysis |
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Growth Hormone (GH)
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* secreted from the anterior pituitary gland
* speeds up the movement of the digested proteins (amino acids) out of the blood and into the cells and this accelerates the cell's anabolism (buildup) of amino acids to form tissue proteins. * also affect fat and carbohydrate metabolism * accelerates fat catabolism (breakdown) but slows glucose catabolism. (less glucose leaves the blood to enter the cells so glucose in the blood increases. * growth hormone an dinsulin have opposite effects on blood glucose. insulin decreases blood glucose, and growth hormones increase it. |
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hyperglycemia
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* too much growth hormone
* higher than normal blood glucose concentration |
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hypoglycemia
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* too much insulin in the blood
* lower than normal blood glucose concentration |
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gigantism
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* condition caused in the early years of life from hypersecretion of growth hormones.
* excessive amount of GH during the pre-adult years * child grows to a giant size |
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acromegaly
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* disease caused by the anterior pituitary gland secreting too much growth hormone after the normal growth years
* characteristics are enlargement of the bones of the hands, feet, jaws, and cheeks from bone and soft tissue overgrowth. prominent forehead and large nose, enlarged skin pores and an overgrown mandible. |
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(pituitary) dwarfism
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* caused by a hyposecretion of the growth hormone during the growth years
* usually have a body frame of normal proportions but are much smaller in overall size * dwarfism caused by other conditions may produce an oddly proportioned body frame. |
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prolactin or lactogenic hormone
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* during pregnancy, prolactin stimulates the breast development necessary for eventual lactation.
* after delivery it stimulates the breasts to start secreting milk |
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Posterior Pituitary Gland or neurohypophysis
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* is truly an extension of the hypothalamus
* has the structure of nervous tissue. * hormones are produced in the hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary, where they are stored until they are needed * Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus stimulate or inhibit the release of the hormones from the posterior pituitary. releases two hormones: 1. antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 2. oxytocin (OT) - causes contractions and labor |
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antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
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* released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary
* produced in the hypothalamus * acts to decrease urine volume or stimulates retention of water by kidneys * accelerates the re-absorption of water from urine in kidney tubules back into the blood * when more water moves out of the tubules into the blood, less water remains in the tubules and less urine leaves the body. |
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diuretic
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increasing the volume of urine excreted
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oxytocin (OT)
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* released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary
* produced in the hypothalamus * secreted from a women's body before and after she has a baby. * stimulates contractions of the smooth muscle of the pregnant uterus and is believed to initiate and maintain labor * it causes the glandular cells of the breast to release milk into the ducts from which a baby can obtain it by sucking (milk letdown) * also thought to enhance social bonding - mother and infant bonding |
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diabetes insipidus
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* disease caused by hyposecretion of ADH or antidiuretic hormones
* elimination of extremely large volumes of urine each day. (25 - 30 L in 24 hours) |
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hypothalamus
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* located below the thalamus
* consists of several structures that lie beneath the thalamus and forms the floor of the third cerebral ventricle and the lower part of its lateral walls. * produces the hormones oxytocin (OT), antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and releasing and inhibiting hormones that are critical to the proper functioning of the pituitary * Two groups of specialized neurons in the hypothalamus synthesize the posterior pituitary hormones, which then pass down along axons into the pituitary gland. combined nervous and endocrine functions of the hypothalamus plays a dominant role in regulating body functions related to homeostasis. ie. body temperature, appetite and thirst. |
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releasing and inhibiting hormones
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* produced in the hypothalamus
* then they travel directly through a specialized blood capillary system to the anterior pituitary hormones or they can inhibit their production and their release into the general circulation * releasing hormones - stimulate |
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Thyroid Gland
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* an endocrine gland NOT that is not located in a body cavity.
* lies in the anterior of the neck just below the larynx. * It has two lobes that lie on either side of the trachea. A band of tissue known as the isthmus connects these lobes * secretes hormones that influence all other endocrine glands and cells in our body and influence growth, metabolism, and maturation. * stores considerable amounts of the thyroid hormones in the form of a colloid compound; when the thyroid hormone is needed they are release from the colloid and secreted into the blood. * secretes: calcitonin hormone (CT) secretes two thyroid hormones: 1. thyroxine (T4) - most abundant 2. triiodothyronine (T3) - most potent - principal thyroid hormone |
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thyroxine (T4)
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* a thyroid hormone secreted by the thyroid gland
* contains four iodine atoms * must maintain a diet sufficient in iodine in order for production of T4 |
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hypercalcemia
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* a harmful excess of calcium in the blood
* calcitonin prevents hypercalcemia |
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hyperthyroidism
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* oversecretion of the thyroid hormones
* dramatically increases the metabolic rate. * characterized by weigh lose, increased appetite and show signs of nervous irritability. |
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exophthalmos
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* a condition of very prominent, almost protruding eyes
* usually with patients with hyperthyroidism. |
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graves disease
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* an inherited hyperthyroidism with exophthalmos (bulging eyes)
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hypothyroidism
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* undersecretion of thyroid hormones can be caused by and result in a number of different conditions:
1. goiter 2. cretinism 3. myxedema |
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triiodothyronine (T3)
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* a thyroid hormone secreted by the thyroid gland
* made in the thyroid gland * contains three iodine atoms * must maintain a diet sufficient in iodine in order for production of T3 |
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1. thyroxine (T4)
2. triiodothyronine (T3) |
* makes cells speed up their release of energy from foods or, or stimulate cellular metabolism
* a thyroid hormone secreted by the thyroid gland * must maintain a diet sufficient in iodine in order for production of these hormones |
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calcitonin
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* decreases the concentration of calcium in the blood by first acting on bone to inhibit its breakdown.
* with less bone being resorbed (absorbed), less calcium moves out of bone into blood. * helps maintain homeostasis of blood calcium * has the opposite effect of parathyroid hormone ** too little blood calcium - nerve cells become over active, sometimes to such a degree that they bombard muscles with impulses that lead to spasms. |
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goiter
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* a hypothyroidism disease
* caused by a low dietary intake of iodine and causes painful enlargement of the thyroid gland * use of iodized salt has significantly reduced incidents |
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cretinism
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* a hypothyroidism disease
* hyposecretion of thyroid hormones during the formative years or pre-adult years * characterized by low metabolic rate, retarded growth and sexual development, and often mental retardation |
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myxedema
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* a hypothyroidism disease
* deficient thyroid hormone secretions later in life * characterized by low metabolic rate, leads to lessened mental and physical vigot, weight gain, loss of hair, and an accumulation of mucous fluid in the the subcutaneous tissue noticeable around the eyes. |
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parathyroid glands
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* small, pea-shaped glands, usually four of them (sometimes 5 or 6)
* found on the back or posterior side of the thyroid gland * secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) - which increases the concentration of calcium in the blood |
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parathyroid hormone (PTH)
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* secreted from the parathyroid gland
* increases the concentration of calcium in the blood (opposite effect of the thyroid gland's calcitonin) * acts to increase the amount of calcium being resorbed (absorbed) from a bone * stimulates bone-resorbing cells or osteoclasts to increase their breakdown of bone's hard matrix, a process that frees the calcium stored in the matrix. the release calcium then moves out of bone into the blood and increases the blood's calcium concentration. * too much blood calcium - brain and heart cells do not function normally; become mentally disturbed, and heart may stop all together. |
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adrenal glands
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* sometimes referred to as the suprarenal glands because of their position
* curves over the top of each kidney - looks like one but is actually two separate endocrine glands. 1. adrenal cortex - outer part of adrenal gland which secretes glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and sex hormones 2. adrenal medulla - inner part of adrenal gland which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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adrenal cortex
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* an endocrine glands in the adrenal glands
* outer part of adrenal gland * hormones of the adrenal cortex are steroid hormones * secretes corticoids from the three layers of cells * anti-immunity, anti-allergy effect made up of three zones or layers of cells called adrenal cortical: 1. outer zone - secretes the hormone mineralocorticoids (MCs) * main mineralocorticoid is the hormone aldosterone 2. middle zone - secretes the hormone glucocorticoids (GCs) 3. innermost or deepest zone - secretes small amounts of (sex) male hormones (androgens) that resemble testosterone secreted in both men and women. increases sex drive in women |
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adrenal medulla
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* an endocrine glands in the adrenal glands
* first endocrine response to stress * inner part of adrenal gland * helps the body resist or avoid stress * "fight or flight" to danger stress * secretes or squirts the hormones : 1. epinephrine (Epi) - prolonges and intensifies changes in body function brought about by the stimulation of the sympathetic subdivision of the Autonomic nervous system. 2. norepinephrine (NRI) |
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cortisol or hydrocortisone
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the name given when cortisol is used as a pharmaceutical, is the chief glucocorticoid.
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mineralocorticoid
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* helps control the amount of certain mineral salts in the blood
* aldosterone is the chief mineralocorticoid |
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aldosterone
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main function is to increase the amount of sodium and decrease the amount of potassium in the blood
* speeds up kidney reabsorbtion of water * this is done by influencing the kidney tubules causing it to speed up so less of it will be lost in urine * and causes tubules increase their secretion of potassium so that more potassium will be lost in uring |
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gluconeogenesis
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a process that converts amino acids or fatty acids to glucose and that is performed mainly by liver cells
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glucocorticoids
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increase gluconeogenesis by:
1. helps maintain normal blood glucose concentration - promote the breakdown of tissue proteins to amino acids, especially in muscle cells. makes glucose leave the liver to the blood, increasing glucose concentration. 2. performs functions necessary for maintaining normal blood pressure - act in a complicated way to make it possible for two other hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla to partially constrict blood vessels, which is necessary to maintain blood pressure * can also act to make an inflammatory effect 3. antiimmunity, antiallergy effect. - bring about a decrease in the number of certain cells that produce antibodies. **side effects during prolonged periods of stress because anti-inflammatory cause blood vessels to restrict. *decreased immune activity - may promote the spread of infections and cancer *prolonged blood vessel constriction may lead to increased blood pressure. *cushing syndrome - caused by hypersecretion of glucocorticoid hormone by the adrenal cortex. |
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antibodies
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substances that make us immune to some factors and allergic to others.
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stress
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* an internal state or condition caused by extreme stimuli acting on the body.
* brought on by increased secretion of glucocorticoids. ie. surgery, hemorrhage, infection, severe burns, and intense emotions |
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Glands
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are located throughout the body and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
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Pineal Gland
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* secretes melatonin in very small quantities, which inhibits tropic hormones affecting the ovaries.
* melatonin is thought to be involved in regulating the onset of puberty and the menstrual cycle in women. *receives and responds to sensory information from the optic nerves, aka. third eye. * uses information regarding changing light levels to adjust its output of melatonin. * meletonin production Increases at night, decreases during the day. an important time keeping mechanism for the body's internal clock and sleep cycle. * small gland near the roof of the third ventricle of the brain * resembles the pine nut which looks like a small kernel of corn. * easily located in a child but becomes fibrous and encrusted with calcium deposits as a person ages. |
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Testes (male)
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* secretes the male sex hormone testosterone—the "masculinizing hormone."
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Ovaries (female)
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* secretes estrogen "feminizing hormone,"
* corpus luteum (located in the ovaries) secretes progesterone, which assists with the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy. |
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thymus
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* secretes and produces thymosin that promotes the development of immune system cells.
* located in the mediastinum, and in infants may extend up into the neck as far as the lower edge of the thyroid gland * has a cortex and a medulla, both are composed largely of lymphocytes (white blood cells) * part of the body's immune system, and essential part of the endocrine system * small structure > 1 oz plays a critical part in the body's defenses against infections - its vital immunity mechanism. |
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adrenal abnormalities
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*can be caused by hypersecretion or hyposecretion of several hormones
* Cushing Syndrome - tumors of the adrenal cortex in the middle zone are usually from caused by hypersecretion of glucocorticoid hormone * Virilizing tumor - hypersecretion of androgen from the inner zone of the adrenal cortex * addison disease - condition from a deficiency or hyposecretion of the corticoids from the adrenal cortex * diabetes mellitus - Insulin hyposecretion * Graves disease - hyperthyroidism with exophthalmos (bulging eyes) * hypercalcemia - Hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone |
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cushing syndrome
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* tumors caused by hypersecretion of glucocorticoid hormone by the adrenal cortex middle layer
* virilization in women, more common in women than in men. characterized by: * moon face and the buffalo hump on the upper back that develop because of the redistribution of body fat. * elevated blood sugar levels and suffer frequent infections. * surgical removal of the tumor may result in dramatic improvement of the moon face symptom in only 4 months. |
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androgen
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* a testosterone-like sex hormones
* steroid hormone that increases male characteristics |
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Virilizing tumor
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* caused by hypersecretion of androgen from the inner zone of the adrenal cortex
* symptoms resemble the male secondary sexual characteristics such as beard growth, development of body hair, and increased muscle mass. * term virile or virilis is latin for male or masculine |
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addison disease
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* condition from a deficiency or Hyposecretion of the corticoids from the adrenal cortex
* results in muscle weakness, reduced blood sugar, nausea, loss of appetite and weight loss. |
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pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
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* too small to be seen without a microscope
* little clumps of cells scattered like islands in a sea among the pancreatic cells that secrete the pancreatic digestive juice. two important kinds of cells: 1. Alpha cells (A cells) - secrete glucagon increases blood glucose concentration levels 2. beta cells (B cells) - secrete insulin which decreases blood glucose concentration levels * insulin and glucagon are antagonists * normal amount of glucose is about 80 to 110 mg of glucose in every 100 ml of blood during fasting. |
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gylcogenolyis
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* process accelerated by Glucagon in the liver
* a chemical process by which the glucose stored in the liver cells in the form of glycogen is converted to glucose. * glucose then leaves the liver cells and enters the blood. * glucose therefore increases blood glucose concentration. |
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insulin
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* the only hormone that can decrease blood glucose concentration
* insulin is an antagonists * beta cells (B cells) - secrete insulin located in the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) * decreases blood glucose by accelerating its movement out of the blood, through cell membranes and into cells. as glucose enters the cells at a faster rate, the cells increase their metabolism of glucose. briefly then insulin decreases blood glucose and increases glucose metabolism. |
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type 2 diabetes mellitus
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* results from an abnormality of the insulin receptors, preventing the normal effects of insulin on its target cells and thus also raising blood glucose levels.
* screening tests for type 1 and type 2 look for elevated blood glucose levels and require only a drop of blood. also test for sugar in the urine |
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glycosuria
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* sugar in the urine
* excess glucose is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys and lost in the urine * often occurs in diabetes mellitus |
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pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) disorders
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* normal amount of glucose is about 80 to 110 mg of glucose in every 100 ml of blood during fasting.
* secretes too much insulin; common with tumors of the pancreas, more glucose than usual leaves the blood to enter the cells, and blood glucose decreases * secretes too little insulin like in type 1 diabetes mellitus; less glucose leaves the blood to enter the cells, so the blood glucose increases; often to 3x normal. * severe hypoglycemia (insulin shock) |
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female sex glands
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* primary female sex glands are the two ovaries
contains two glandular structures: 1. ovarian follicles 2. corpus luteum |
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ovarian follicles
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* little pockets in which egg cells (ova) develop
* secrete estrogen, the "feminizing hormone" |
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estrogen
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* involved in the development and maturation of the breasts and external genitals
* responsible for development of adult female body contours and initiation of the menstrual cycle * the "feminizing hormone" * glandular structure in the ovaries |
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corpus luteum
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* glandular structure in the ovaries
* mainly secretes progesterone but also some estrogen * cells that form from an ovarian follicle after the release of a mature egg and secrete progesterone. |
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Male sex glands
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* some cells of the testes produce the male sex cells called sperm
* other cells in the testes, male reproductive ducts, and glands produce the liquid portion of the male reproductive fluid called semen. * the interstitial cells in the testes secrete the male sex hormone called testosterone directly into the blood. |
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testosterone
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* male sex hormone
* secreted by the interstitial cells in the testes * "masculinizing hormone * responsible for the maturation of the external genitals, beard growth, changes in voice at puberty, and muscular development and body contours typical of males. |
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thymosin
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* secreted from the thymus
* actually a group of several hormones that together play an important role in the development and function of the body's immune system * promotes the development of immune system cells. |
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placenta
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* functions as a temporary endocrine gland
* during pregnancy it produces large amounts of chorionic gonadotropins which are excreted in the urine * This tropic hormone is secreted by cells of the placenta, and its presence is detected by most pregnancy tests marketed today * also produces estrogen and progesterone |
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chorionic gonadotropins
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* tropic hormones secreted by cells of the chorion
* produced by the placenta * during early pregnancy the kidneys excrete large amounts chorionic gonadotropins, lead to development of early pregnancy tests. |
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chorion
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the outermost membrane that surrounds the baby during development in the uterus.
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melatonin
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* Pineal Gland secretes melatonin in very small quantities, which inhibits tropic hormones affecting the ovaries.
* thought to be involved in regulating the onset of puberty and the menstrual cycle in women. * melatonin supplements are now widely used as a sleep aid or to reprogram the sleep cycle as a result of jet lag. |
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Melatonin secretion or sensitivity disorders
(Pineal gland disorders) |
1. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) -
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Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
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* exhibit signs of clinical depression only during the winter months, when nights are long.
* unusual high melatonin levels associated with long nights cause psychological effects in these patients. * treatment is to use bright lights in the person's indoor environment for a few hours each day after sundown, this tricks the pineal gland to secrete less melatonin. |
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ghrelin
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* hormone that is part of the endocrine system
* secreted by epithelial cells lining the stomach and boosts appetite, slows metabolism, and reduces fat burning * involved in the development of obesity |
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atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH)
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* hormone that is part of the endocrine system
* is secreted by cells in the wall of the heart's atria ( upper chambers) * an important regulator of fluid and electrolyte homeostasis * an antagonist to aldosterone; so it actually stimulates loss of sodium ions and water. |
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aldosterone
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* stimulates the kidney to retain sodium ions and water
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leptin
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* hormone that is part of the endocrine system
* secreted by fat-storing cells throughout the body * regulates how hungry or full we feel and how fat is metabolized by the body. |
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diabetes mellitus
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* results from target cells insensitivity to insulin
* exercise (aerobic activity) can reduce the severity of diabetes; it increases the number of insulin receptors in target cells and the insulin affinity of the receptors. |
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release of nonsteroid hormone in a gland
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1. hormone is secreted into the bloodstream
2. membrane receptor in target organ cell receives message. (first messenger) 3. chemical reactions occur 4. chemical reactions activate molecules within the cell (second messenger) 5. cell responds and performs specialized function. |
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enhance performance
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Abuse of anabolic steroid hormones (doping) disrupts the normal production of hormones in the body. As a result, many diseases and disorders can occur because of anabolic steroid abuse. Some of these include infertility, hair loss, breast development in males, heart attacks, and liver tumors.
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release of a steroid hormone from a gland
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* small, lipid-soluble steroid hormones such as estrogen that can pass intact directly through the cell membrane of the target organ cell and enter the nucleus
* inside the cell, they pass through the cytoplasm (plasma membrane) and enter the nucleus, where they bind with a receptor according to the lock-and-key model to form a hormone-receptor complex. * this complex that acts on DNA which ultimately causes the formation of a new protein in the cytoplasm that then produces specific effects in the target cell (hormone effect) * the hormone receptor complex induces DNA to make RNA which leaves the nucleus and carries information to the ribosome for making a protein in the cytoplasm. this new protein produces specific effects in the target cell. |
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones disorders
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* Growth hormone (GH) - Hyposecretion=Dwarfism; Hypersecretion=Gigantism (child) and Acromegaly (adult)
* Prolactin (PRL) - Hyposecretion=Insufficient lactation in nursing women, Hypersecretion=Inappropriate lactation in men or non-nursing women * Luteinizing hormone (LH) - Hyposecretion=Lack of sexual development and sterility * Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)- Hyposecretion=Lack of sexual development and sterility * Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Hyposecretion= Understimulation of the thyroid gland , Hypersecretion=Overstimulation of the thyroid |
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Posterior pituitary hormones disorders
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* Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - Hyposecretion = Diabetes insipidus, Hypersecretion = Abnormal water retention
* Oxytocin - Hyposecretion = Prolonged or difficult labor and delivery (uncertain), Hypersecretion = Inappropriate ejection of milk in lactating women |
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simple goiter
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* caused from a low dietary intake of iodine causes a painless enlargement of the thyroid gland
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pancreas
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* lies transversely along the posterior abdominal wall, extending from the curve on the duodenum to the spleen
* both an endocrine and exocrine gland. * As an exocrine gland, it provides important enzymes that assist with the digestion of food. * As an endocrine gland, it secretes two important hormones. has two types of hormone-secreting cells that are located in the pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans: * Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets make and secrete the hormone glucagon, which raises the blood glucose levels. * Beta cells in the pancreatic islets secrete the hormone insulin, which serves an antagonistic function to glucagon by lowering blood glucose levels. |
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Disorders of the Endocrine Glands
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* Thyroid - Hyposecretion = Cretinism (child) and Myxedema or goiter (adult), Hypersecretion = Graves disease (TSH) and Hypocalcemia (calcitonin)
* Parathyroids - Hyposecretion = Hypercalcemia, Hypersecretion = Hypocalcemia * Adrenals- Hyposecretion = Addison's disease, Hypersecretion = Cushing's syndrome * Pancreas - Hyposecretion =Diabetes mellitus, Hypersecretion = Severe hypoglycemia * Sex glands- Hyposecretion = Lack of sexual development or sterility, Hypersecretion = Premature sexual development * Pineal- Hyposecretion = Winter depression and sleep disorders (melatonin) * Thymus- Hypersecretion = Immune system depression |
