Bsc2085 - Chapter 1

Front 1

What is anatomy?

Back 1

Anatomy is the study of body structures and their relationships

Front 2

*What is physiology?

Back 2

Physiology is the science of how body parts function

Front 3

*How does physiology relate to anatomy?

Back 3

Physiology depends on the structure capability and limitations of the body part’s anatomy. (i.e the function of the body part, depends on the structure) (i.e. physiology depends on anatomy)

Front 4

What are the major subdivisions of macroscopic anatomy?

Back 4

Regional and Systematic

“Gross” or “macroscopic” anatomy is the study of large, visible body structures.

Macroscopic anatomy can be divided into Regional Anatomy, which studies all structures of a particular region (e.g. the abdominal region) or systematic anatomy, which studies a system of organs, such as the cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels) system.

Front 5

*What are the major subdivisions of microscopic anatomy

Back 5

“Microscopic” anatomy is the study of structures at the cellular level, that are not visible without a microscope.

1. Cytology, Histology, and Developmental Anatomy

Microscopic anatomy can be divided into:

Cytology - study of cells

Histology - study of tissues

Developmental Anatomy anatomy is the study of structural changes throughout the lifespan

For example Embryology studies development of the fetus (before birth)

Front 6

What is one subdivision of developmental anatomy?

Back 6

Developmental Anatomy anatomy is the study of structural changes throughout the lifespan

For example Embryology studies development of the fetus (before birth)

Front 7

What are the major subdivisions of physiology?

Back 7

The two major subdivisions of Physiology are:

One subdivision of physiology studies the functions of specific organs such as kidneys - renal physiology

2. Another physiology subdivision studies the functions of organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system (heart & blood vessels)

Front 8

What disciplines does physiology use to describe the function of body parts

Back 8

Physiology uses chemistry, biochemistry and physics to describe the functions of body parts

Front 9

How does the “Complementarity of Structure and Function” relate to Anatomy & Physiology?

Back 9

Why must Anatomy and Physiology be studied together? Because there is a complementariy of structure (Anatomy) and Function (physiology)

This means that the function (Physiology) of body parts depends on their structure (Anatomy)

Front 10

List the 6 Levels of Structural Organization of the Body, in order from simplest to most complex

Back 10

1.Chemical - atoms and molecules

2. Cellular - cells & organelles

3. Tissue - collection of similar cell types

4. Organ - made up of different types of tissues, and achieve one or more functions

5. Organ System - group of organs working together to achieve common function

6. Organismal - YOU, the entire human

Front 11

*List the 11 organ systems of the body & List the major structures and organs of each system & List the major function (s) of each organ system

Back 11

1. Integumentary sytem - skin, hair & nails form external body covering that protects deeper tissues from injury (e.g. skin has sweat and oil glands)

2.Skeletal System - skeleton protects and supports body organs & forms the framework for muscles (Blood cells are formed in the bones, and bones store minerals) (a joint is a site where two or more bones meet)

3. Muscular System - muscles cause mechanical motion in order to manipulate objects or the environment. Muscles make possible the locomotion of humans through the environment, facial expressions and posture. Muscles also produce heat.

4. Nervous System - includes brain, spinal cord and nerves. Forms a fast acting control system that responds to external and internal stimuli (pin prick, low blood sugar). Nervous system responds by activating muscles and glands

5.Endocrine System - includes glands that secrete hormones to regular growth, reproduction and metabolism by the body

6. Cardiovascular System - Heart pumps blood through Blood Vessels. Blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and wastes throughout the body

7. Lymphatic System - picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; helps generate the immune response. Lymphatic system contains white blood cells, called lymphocytes, that are involved in the immune response. The immune response mounts an attack against foreign substances in the body.

8. Respiratory System - keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The respiratory gaseous exchange occurs through the walls of air sacs in the lungs.

9. Digestive System - breaks down food into absorbable units that enter to blood for distribution to cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

10. Urinary System - eliminates nitrogenous wastes. Urinary system regulates water, electrolyte and acid base balance of the blood.

11. Male & Female Reproductive Systems - overall function is to produce offpsring. Male testes produce sperm and male sex hormone. Male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to female reproductive tract. Female reproductive structures are sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn baby.

Front 12

*What does the lymphatic organ system do?

Back 12

Lymphatic System - picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; helps generate the immune response. Lymphatic system contains white blood cells, called lymphocytes, that are involved in the immune response. The immune response mounts an attack against foreign substances in the body.

Front 13

List the 8 functional activities that are necessary to maintain life & Describe an example of each of these functional activities

Back 13

1. Maintain Boundaries - between internal and external environments.

Cell membranes and skin (integumentary system) do this

2. Movement (contractility) - of body parts

Skeletal Muscles move the skeleton and body of substances Smooth gastrointestinal muscles move digested food.Cardiac Muscles move blood.

3. Responsiveness - The ability to sense and respond to stimuli

Withdraw hand (reflex) from flame. Diaphram increases breathing rate (autonomic & not under conscious control) when you are running. Walk towards destination (voluntary)

4. Digestion - breakdown of ingested foodstuffs in mouth, stomach and gastrointestinal tract

Absorption of simple molecules through the small intestine into blood.

5. Metabolism - is all chemical reactions that occur in body cells, including:

Catabolism - breaks down substances into simpler building blocks

Anabolism - builds complex structures from simpler substances

Cellular Respiration - cells use nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP, the energy rich molecules powering cellular activities.

Metabolism depends on the digestive, cardiovascular and respiratory systems…

6.Excretion - The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion by respiratory, urinary, and digestive systems. e.g. carbon dioxide, urea (i.e. urine), and feces

7. Reproduction - cellular division for growth or repair of body organs (e.g. Producing offspring (babies) by the reproductive system)

8. Growth - increase in size of a body part of organism

Front 14

List the 5 survival needs

Back 14

Nutrients

Oxygen

Water

Normal Body Temperature

Appropriate atmospheric pressure

All should be present in appropriate amounts

Front 15

*List three major features of Homeostasis

Back 15

Homeostatis is the body’s ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment. Even while the outside world changes continuously.

1. structural: the animal or plant has particular physical features which help its survival in an otherwise hostile environment.

2. functional: the metabolism of the animal or plant is able to adjust to changes in conditions as they are detected. (The focus of this Area of Study).

3. behavioral: the actions and interactions of the individual, either alone or with others, help it to survive in its particular environment.

Front 16

*What is homeostatis?

Back 16

Homeostatis is a dynamic state of _equilibrium__, or _balance_. Which means the body can change its internal conditions in response to a _stimulus_ - the balance can shift. But these changes can be made only within _certain narrow limits__. In general, the body is in a state of Homeostatis, when the body’s needs are __adequately met__ and it is _functioning smoothly__.

Front 17

*What are the two major body systems responsible communications to maintain Homeostasis?

Back 17

nervous system and endocrine system

The two major body systems responsible for communications to maintain homeostatis are: 1. nervous system and 2. endocrine system

Electrical pules (nervous system) or hormones (endocrine system) are the agents of communication and control...through which different sites of the body communicate to mainain Homeostatic balance

Front 18

In the homeostatic control system, what is the stimulus?

Back 18

stimulus - is a change in a variable (such as temperature). A stimulus may disturb the homeostatic balance, or it may provide information about the internal or external environment

Front 19

In the homeostatic control system, what is the receptor?

Back 19

receptor - detects a stimulus and generates information about the variable. Receptors are specialized cells that can be found in the skin (sending pressure, temperature, pain), sensory organs (eyes, ears), and many other locations (e.g. receptors in blood vessels detecting blood pressure or blood chemicals

Front 20

*In the homeostatic control system, what is the input?

Back 20

input - the receptors input information travels to the bodys control center along the Afferent (inward) pathway.

Front 21

In the homeostatic control system, what is the control center?

Back 21

control center - can be the brain, spinal cord, or endocrine gland. The control center (brain or endocrine glands) receives input information and send commands called output. Control center determines the set point for the stimulus variable and determines the appropriate response to the stimulus

Front 22

*In the homeostatic control system, what is the output?

Back 22

output - the commands sent out by the control center.set along the efferent (outward) pathway.

Front 23

*In the homeostatic control system, what is the effector?

Back 23

effector - output information travels to the effector (organ responding).The effector is the body part that makes a response to the original stimulus Effectors may use the following three:

voluntary muscles (withdraw hand)

involuntary muscles (pupil constriction)

other body parts (nerves release neurotransmitters, endocrine glands release hormones) to generate a response.

Front 24

*In the homeostatic control system, what is the response?

Back 24

response - the response generated by the effector.

Front 25

*What is the Afferent Pathway?

Back 25

The receptors input information travels to the bodys control center along the Afferent (inward) pathway.

Front 26

*What is the efferent pathway?

Back 26

The commands sent out by the control center.set along the efferent (outward) pathway.

Front 27

*What are three possible purposes served by the Effector’s Response?

Back 27

The three possible response of an effector include:

1. protect the organism

2. facilitate life sustaining activities

3. maintain homeostatic control

Front 28

What does Homeostatic Imbalance cause in the body?

Back 28

Homeostatis is so important that most diseases can be regarded as its disturbance.

This disease condition is called homeostatic imbalance. It may occur as the bodys control system becomes less efficient during aging.

Front 29

What is the purpose of a Negative Feedback Mechanism?

Back 29

Response of the negative feedback mechanism either shuts OFF the original stimulus, OR REDUCES its intensity. Negative feedback mechanism opposes the stimulus.

Front 30

Describe one example of the body generating a negative feedback mechanism.

Back 30

Shivering, or Sweat Glands activating.

Front 31

What the negative feedback do? Name four functions regulated by a negative feedback mechanism

Back 31

Negative feedback REDUCES the effect of the original stimulus and are essential for maintaining homeostatis.

For functions that are regulated by the negative feedback mechanism, include:

1. Blood Levels of glucose & ions

2. Body Temperature

3. Heart Rate

4. Breathing Rate

Front 32

What is the purpose of a Positive Feedback Mechanism?

Back 32

Magnify the effect of the original stimulus leading to an enhanced (greater) response. AND to regulate blood clotting and labor contractions.

Front 33

Describe one example of the body generating a positive feedback mechanism

Back 33

Blood Clotting:

1. Platelet plug forms. Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed.

Front 34

Name two functions regulated by a positive feedback mechanism

Back 34

Regulates:

1. Labor Contractions

2. Blood Clotting

Front 35

How might negative feedback and positive feedback mechanisms cause homeostatic imbalance during the process of aging?

Back 35

Can occur during Aging if Negative feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed. OR if potentially destructive positive feedback mechanisms take over.

A result is disease of the body.

Front 36

What is the anatomical position?Why is the anatomical position important?

Back 36

The anatomical position is:

Palms facing forward

Knowing the anatomical position is important, as most directional terms refer to the body as if it were in this position.

Front 37

What do the anatomical position terms(directional terms): superior and inferior mean?

Back 37

Superior (Cranial) - toward the head, upper part of the bod, higher than

Inferior (Caudal) - away from the head, lower part of the body lower than

Front 38

What do the anatomical position terms(directional terms): Ventral and Dorsal mean?

Back 38

Ventral (Anterior) - toward or the front of the body, in front of

Dorsal (Posterior) toward or the back of the body, in back of

Front 39

What do the anatomical position terms(directional terms): medial and lateral mean?

Back 39

Medial - toward or at the midline, on the inner side of

Lateral - away from the midline of the body, on the outer side of

Front 40

What do the anatomical position terms(directional terms): intermediate and proximal, and distal?

Back 40

Intermediate - between a more medial and more lateral structure

Proximal - closer to the origin of the body part, or closer to the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Distal - further away from the origin of the body part, or farther away from the attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Front 41

What do the anatomical position terms(directional terms): Superficial and Deep mean?

Back 41

Superfical (external) - toward or at the body surface (i.e. external)

Deep (internal) - away from the body surface, more internal (i.e. internal)

Front 42

What are 2 regional terms describing 2 major regions of the body?

Back 42

1. axial - head, neck, and trunk

2. appendicular - limbs

Regional terms designate specific areas

Front 43

Please name the 3 MAIN body planes

Back 43

A body plane is a flat surface along which body or structures cut for anatomical study

1. Saggital Plane - divides the body vertically into right and left parts. Produces a sagittal section

1a. Midsagittal (median) plane - lies on the midline

1b. Parasagittal plane - not on midline

Frontal (coronal) plane - divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts

2. Transverse (horizontal) plane - divides the body horizontally into superior and inferior parts. Produces a cross section

3. Frontal Plane (Front half from back half)

Front 44

Name 2 subdivisions of the dorsal body cavity and name something that is contained in each

Back 44

The dorsal cavity protects the nervous system

Two subdivisions are:

Cranial Cavity - encases the brain

Vertebral Cavity - encases spinal cord

Front 45

Name 3 subdivisions of the ventral body cavity and name something that is contained in each

Back 45

The ventral body cavity houses internal organs (viscera)

1. Thoracic Cavity - also has two pleural cavities, which each houses a lung

Mediastinum (Superior) - surrounds thoracic organs: esophagus, trachea

Mediastinum (Entire) - entire mediastinum contains pericardial cavity - that encloses the Heart.

2. Abdominal Cavity - contains digestive viscera

3. Pelvic Cavity - contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

These are both housed in the Abdominopelvic Cavity

The ventral cavity is also referred to as having TWO subdivisions (separated by the diaphram):

1.Thoracic Cavity - housing heart and lungs

2. Abdominopelvic Cavity - housing digestive viscera (abdominal) and urinary bladder (pelvic)

Front 46

What are parietal and visceral serous membranes?

Back 46

A serous membrane is a thin, double-layered membrane separated by serious fluid

Parietal Serosa - lines internal body walls

Visceral Serosa - covers the internal organs ; allows the organs to slide without friction.

Front 47

What are the 4 abdominopelvic quadrants?

Back 47

These are the divisions primarily used by medical personnel.

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Left Lower quadrant (LLQ)

Front 48

What are the 9 abdominopelvic regions?

Back 48

The nine divisions used primarily by anatomists

1. right hypochondriac

2. epigastric region

3. left hypochondriac

4. right lumbar region

5. umbilical region

6. left lumbar region

7. right iliac (inguinal) region

8. hypogastric region

9. left iliac (inguinal) region

Front 49

Label the Homeostatic Control System

Back 49

Front 50

Label an example of a Homeostatic Control System responding to TWO negative stimuli

Back 50

Front 51

Label Body Regions

Back 51

Front 52

Label the Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities and Their Subdivisions

Back 52

Front 53

Label the 3 main planes, and the 3 types of sections they create

Back 53

Front 54

Identify the ORGANS:

Back 54

Front 55

Identify Organs:

Back 55

Front 56

Identify Organs

Back 56

Front 57

Identify the 9 abdominopelvic regions

Back 57

Front 58

Identify ORGANs in the 9 abdominopelvic regions

Back 58