Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
264 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What are two things plants can do that animals can't?
|
1) Photosynthesis
2) Can acquire essential nutrients that are raw and organic/mineral uptake |
|
|
Name 3 benefits to early life oxygen had
|
1) Blocked out UV radiation
2) Kreb Cycle 3) Oxygen is more efficient than Glucose in energy production |
|
|
How do oxygen and hydrogen interact with electrons?
What is an effect of this when they bond together? |
-Oxygen grabs electrons from almost anything, hydrogen is very reluctant to give them up.
-Polarization of water |
|
|
Transpiration
|
A process that cools down leaves
|
|
|
Why does water have high surface tension?
|
Because of hydrogen bonding
|
|
|
What is carbohydrates primary function?
|
Produce energy
|
|
|
What is the fundamental sugar?
|
Glucose
|
|
|
What is the general structure of a carb?
|
Carbons (C) bonded to (OH)s and (H)s
|
|
|
What are the two different forms glucose can be in?
|
Linear or ring
|
|
|
Polymerization (in general and specific example)
|
When monomers join together to form polymers; glucose forming chains
|
|
|
What makes cell walls?
|
Cellulose and lignin
|
|
|
Photosynthesis
|
Radiant energy from the sun is captured and used to form sugars which all life depends on.
|
|
|
What element is released as a by-product of photosynthesis?
|
Oxygen
|
|
|
What pigment absorbs energy during photosynthesis?
|
Chlorophyll
|
|
|
When did photosynthesis begin on Earth?
|
3.4-3.5 billion years ago
|
|
|
What molecule is split during photosynthesis?
|
H20
|
|
|
Respiration
|
Breaking down oxygen to receive energy
|
|
|
Anaerobic
|
Oxygenless process
|
|
|
What is a hydroxl and carboxl?
|
OH-, CO(OH)
|
|
|
How many bonds do: H, O, C, N, P elements form?
|
1, 2, 4, 3, 4
|
|
|
What is cellulose?
|
A carbohydrate polymer
|
|
|
Hydrophobic
|
Repelled by water
|
|
|
Hydrophylic
|
Attracted to water
|
|
|
Amines
|
Organic molecules containing Nitrogen with a lone pair
|
|
|
Amino acids are bonded by what kind of bonds?
|
Peptide
|
|
|
Peptide bonds bond what?
|
Amino Acids
|
|
|
What is the primary structure for a protein?
|
Alpha-helix
|
|
|
What is the name of the functional protein system?
|
Quaternary structure
|
|
|
What form do catalysts usually take on?
|
Protein
|
|
|
Name 3 characteristics of catalysts
|
1) Speed up reaction
2) Do not affect direction of reaction 3) Are not consumed in reaction |
|
|
What makes up a nucleotide in general?
|
1) Phosphate group
2) Sugar 3) Nitrogenous base |
|
|
What is the name of weak/ephemeral bonds in water?
|
Hydrogen bonds
|
|
|
What are the five different nitrogenous bases in nucleotides?
|
1) Adenine
2) Guanine 3) Thymine - DNA 4) Cytosine 5) Uracil - RNA |
|
|
Give an example of an alkaloid
|
Morphine, Caffeine
|
|
|
Cytoplasm
|
Liquid gel inside cell, contains the cytosol and holds organelles together, also includes plasma membrane
|
|
|
Prokaryote
|
Without Nucleus
|
|
|
Eukaryote
|
True nucleus
|
|
|
What is the nucleus' function?
|
Directing the whole cell, determines which proteins are produced by the cell
|
|
|
Grana
|
Stacks of thylakoids in the chloroplast
|
|
|
Where do light reactions occur?
|
On the grana
|
|
|
What is an organic molecule?
|
A molecule containing carbon
|
|
|
What are the four most common organic molecules?
|
1) Carbs
2) Lipids 3) Proteins 4) Nucleic Acids |
|
|
Polysaccaride
|
Many sugars linked together
|
|
|
Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
|
Hydrophobic
|
|
|
Triglyceride
|
3 fatty acid molecules bonded to a glycerol
|
|
|
Saturated fatty acid have...
|
Single C to C bonds
|
|
|
Unsaturated fatty acids have....
|
Double C to C bonds
|
|
|
Phospholipid
|
Lipid that becomes polarized by attaching a phosphorous
|
|
|
What are proteins?
|
Polymers of amino acids
|
|
|
Phagocytosis
|
Swallowing of small bacteria by larger cell which forms double membranes
|
|
|
Symbiosis
|
Close relationship of species/cells
|
|
|
What does the Plasma Membrane do? (2 things)
|
Coordinates cell wall synthesis, detects and facilitates cell growth and differentiation
|
|
|
What is stored inside vacuoles?
|
Sugars, acids, primary and secondary metabolites, and inorganic compounds
|
|
|
Which organelle takes up the most space inside the cell?
|
Vacuole
|
|
|
What are the two parts of the Endoplasmic Reticulum and what are their functions?
|
Smooth ER: makes lipids
Rough ER: makes proteins |
|
|
What is the Golgi Body's function? (2 things)
|
Exocytosis: Takes vesicles and adds compounds to them, then fuses with plasma membrane, then they leave. Also synthesis of polysaccarides.
|
|
|
What are microtubules made up of?
|
Tubulin protein
|
|
|
Which organelle directs vesicles?
|
Microtubule
|
|
|
What does actin filament do?
|
Helps movement in cell
|
|
|
What are 3 organelles that plants have but animals don't?
|
Cell Wall
Plastids Vacuoles |
|
|
What holds a cell wall together?
|
Pectin
|
|
|
What prevents water loss in the cell wall?
|
Suberin
|
|
|
What does a cell wall determine/what are its functions?
|
Determines size, shape and how long a cell will live
|
|
|
Are primary or secondary cell walls thicker?
|
Secondary cell walls
|
|
|
What is the desmotubule?
|
A tubule that runs between cells
|
|
|
Plasmadesmata
|
Tubules that traverse the cell wall and enable communication between cells, connect protoplasts between cells
|
|
|
When does water potential = 0?
|
At 1 atm, 20 C
|
|
|
What is hydrostatic potential?
|
Water with potential from pressure
|
|
|
What is Asmotic Potential? What's the sign? What happens if NaCl is added?
|
The potential to move water across a semi-permeable membrane. (-). Potential is lowered.
|
|
|
Give an example of Matric Potential
|
Sponge absorbing water
|
|
|
Diffusion
|
Water moving to reach equilibrium in a solution
|
|
|
What happens when plants begin to wilt?
|
Loss of turgor
|
|
|
Incipient Plasmolysis
|
When there is 0 turgor
|
|
|
How do ions move through membranes?
|
Channel proteins direct ions, size and charge of ions matter when passing through
|
|
|
What is Chromatin?
|
DNA combined with histone proteins
|
|
|
What happens when chromosomes are condensed?
|
They turn into chromatin
|
|
|
What are ribosomes made of?
|
RNA and proteins
|
|
|
Where do amino acids link?
|
In ribosomes
|
|
|
What are two functions of plastids?
|
1) Help photosynthesis
2) Store compounds |
|
|
Where does respiration take place?
|
Mitochondria
|
|
|
Exocytosis
|
Secretion of substances from cells to vesicles
|
|
|
Pit Fields
|
Area of greatly reduced thickness in primary cell wall
|
|
|
Hydrostatic Pressure
|
The pressure required to stop water flow
|
|
|
What is a gradient determined by?
|
The number of molecules dissolved, not mass
|
|
|
Turgor Pressure
|
Pressure that develops because of osmosis (osmotic pressure)
|
|
|
Wall pressure
|
Opposes the turgor pressure, balances it
|
|
|
Which is the high energy state, NAD+ or NADH?
|
NADH
|
|
|
What is the energy chain from lowest to highest of Adenosine?
|
Adenosine-->AMP-->ADP-->ATP
|
|
|
How can ADP turn into ATP?
|
Burning glucose
|
|
|
How do big free energy changes in reactions affect chain/pathway reactions?
|
They speed them up
|
|
|
How do biological processes perform with respect to temperature?
|
Increase 2-fold for increase in 10 C, until about 40 C.
|
|
|
What are two things that determine how fast a reaction goes?
|
Activation energy/free energy change, Ph
|
|
|
What happens if a chain/pathway wants to stop? Why?
|
A product usually goes to first reaction, so as to prevent any unwanted products.
|
|
|
What is the most important biological pathway?
|
Glycolysis (sugar-splitting)
|
|
|
Is glycolysis an anaerobic or aerobic process?
|
Both
|
|
|
How does glycolysis begin?
|
Hydrolysis of a starch to produce glucose
|
|
|
What does the glycolysis process yield?
|
2 ATP, 2 NADH and 2 pyruvate
|
|
|
About how much of the original energy in the glucose molecule remains after glycolysis?
|
80%
|
|
|
What does respiration include?
|
1) Glycolysis
2) Anaerobic/Aerobic pathway 3) Aerobic - Citric Acid Cycle then E-Transport Chain |
|
|
Where do the citric acid cycle and e-transport chain occur?
|
In the mitochondria
|
|
|
What happens at the beginning of the Kreb cycle?
|
Pyruvate is combined with coenzyme A to form AcetylCoA
|
|
|
In the presence of oxygen, what happens to pyruvate after glycolysis?
|
Enters mitochondria to become AcetylCoA and begin Kreb cycle
|
|
|
Aquaporin and its function
|
Protein in cell membrane that regulates the flow of water through passive transport
|
|
|
Passive Transport
|
Diffusion down/with a concentration/electrochemical gradient
|
|
|
Active Transport
|
Diffusion against a concentration/electrochemical gradient
|
|
|
How much net energy is produced after glycolysis?
|
6 ATPs
|
|
|
Starch
|
Polysaccaride consisting of many glucose molecules
|
|
|
What is the second step in respiration and how much energy does it produce (under anaerobic conditions?)
|
Pyruvate turning into AcetylCoA, yielding 6 ATPs of energy
|
|
|
What is the point of respiration?
|
To gather energy for cellular use
|
|
|
What is the last step of the citric acid cycle and why is it important?
|
Oxaloacetate is remade so that it can bind with another AcetylCoA and continue the cycle
|
|
|
Where does CO2 release in plants come from?
|
The oxidation of glucose (respiration)
|
|
|
How much energy does all of respiration produce?
|
36 ATPs
|
|
|
What is iron's function in e-trasnport chain?
|
Allows molecules to be reduced/oxidized
|
|
|
When are electrons donated to e-trasnport chains?
|
At high energy levels
|
|
|
What element does the electron end the chain at? What is the name of it?
|
Joins with O2, called the terminal electron acceptor
|
|
|
Peter Mitchell
|
Found that the electron transport chain could drive H+ ions across membrane to form ATP
|
|
|
What happens when H+ is moved across membrane during e-transport chain?
|
NADH is converted into ATP
|
|
|
How much of the sun's energy that hits Earth is converted into energy from Photosynthesis?
|
0.02%
|
|
|
Simple Diffusion
|
Allows solutes to pass through membranes
|
|
|
What are two types of passive transport?
|
Diffusion, osmosis
|
|
|
What is an example of active transport?
|
Pumping of H+ ions against concentration gradient
|
|
|
True or false, water does not move freely through membranes.
|
True
|
|
|
First law of thermo
|
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only changed in form
|
|
|
Second law of thermo
|
Entropy, state of order to disorder naturally
|
|
|
What is the equation for free energy?
|
G = H-TS
|
|
|
Substrate
|
Molecule on which an enzyme acts
|
|
|
Active Site
|
Where the substrate enters the enzyme
|
|
|
Cofactor
|
Non-protein compound bound to a protein that helps proteins function
|
|
|
What happens when respiration occurs without oxygen?
|
Glycolysis then fermentation
|
|
|
ATP Synthase
|
Creates ATP by bonding ADP and phosphate, also has a pore protons can pass through
|
|
|
Where does glycolysis take place?
|
In cytosol
|
|
|
Van Helmont
|
Willow tree experiment, proved plants didn't grow from soil, proposed water but was wrong (1648)
|
|
|
Joseph Priestley, year?
|
Plants were able to sustain life, hence producing Oxygen (1774)
|
|
|
Ingenhousz, year?
|
Proved Priestley's experiment needed light to work, (1796)
|
|
|
What spectrum of light does chlorophyll absorb?
|
400-700nm
|
|
|
Englemann, year?
|
Found that chlorophyll creates oxygen a lot in blue and red spectrum (1882)
|
|
|
Robin Hill, year?
|
Found that oxygen comes from someplace else than CO2, proposed two photosystems were connected (1937)
|
|
|
Ruben and Kamen, year?
|
Created Heavy water molecules and traced that oxygen came from water, (1941)
|
|
|
Stroma
|
Where dark reactions occur (on the bottom of leaf, not an organelle)
|
|
|
In photosynthesis, photons, electrons and molecules have what ratio?
|
1:1:1
|
|
|
How are electrons raised in energy?
|
Photons adds PE
|
|
|
Fluorescence
|
The photon electrons emit is always a longer wavelength than that at which it was absorbed
|
|
|
When chlorophyll (pigment molecules) pass energy down into the reaction center to special chlorophyll molecules like tuning forks
|
Resonance energy transfer
|
|
|
How is photosynthesis initiated?
|
Antennae capture electromagnetic waves
|
|
|
Where is all the energy focused in the antenna complex?
|
Reaction Center
|
|
|
What happens in when electrons get lots of energy during photosynthesis?
|
Photosystem 2 allows for the electron to undergo an electron transport chain that, when losing energy, pumps protons into an electrochemical gradient
|
|
|
What happens (usually) when protons move down the electrochemical gradient?
|
ATP is generated
|
|
|
Cyclic Photophosphorolation
|
The cyclic process in Photosystem 2 that produces ATP from sunlight
|
|
|
Where does ATP go after Photosystem 2?
|
Calvin Cycle
|
|
|
Calvin/Benson, year?
|
Worked out path of citric acid cycle by watching the path radioactive carbon took (1947-1953)
|
|
|
Pigment
|
A substance that absorbs light
|
|
|
Action Spectrum
|
The spectrum as a measure of how effective certain wavelengths are in light requiring processes.
|
|
|
What are two photosynthetic reactions?
|
1) Light reactions
2) Carbon fixation/reduction Reactions |
|
|
Light reaction
|
When light is used to form ATP from ATD
|
|
|
Carbon Fixation/reduction
|
The reduction of CO2 to an organic compound
|
|
|
What kind of reaction is the Calvin Cycle?
|
Carbon Fixation/reduction
|
|
|
Wat are the three stages in the Calvin Cycle?
|
1) Fixation
2) Reduction 3) Regeneration |
|
|
What is the total energy from non-cyclic e flow?
|
6 ATP and 6 NADPH
|
|
|
What happens in the 1st stage of Calvin cycle?
|
Carbon bonds to RuBP to form PGA (x2)
|
|
|
What happens in the 2nd stage of Calvin cycle?
|
PGA is reduced to PGAL
|
|
|
What happens in 3rd stage of Calvin Cycle?
|
Glyceraldehyde (x5) regenerates RuBP
|
|
|
Overall, what happens in Calvin Cycle?
|
Carbon is fixed and turned into sucrose (starch)
|
|
|
Photorespiration, what is the result of this?
|
When Calvin cycle takes place with Oxygen instead of CO2 (reduces efficiency)
|
|
|
What kind of a pathway is Calvin Cycle?
|
C3 pathway
|
|
|
What's the most efficient pathway (usually) in photosynthesis?
|
C4 pathway
|
|
|
Rubisco and its function
|
Is a protein, the most abundant enzyme in the biosphere, takes CO2 and adds it to sugar
|
|
|
What are the 3 stages of interphase?
|
1) G1 phase
2) S phase 3) G2 phase |
|
|
What happens after interphase?
|
mitosis/meiosis
|
|
|
G1 phase
|
cell doubles in size, organelles increase in number
|
|
|
S phase
|
DNA replicates
|
|
|
G2 phase
|
Chromosomes condense, structures for cell division assemble
|
|
|
What are the stages of Mitosis?
|
1) Early Prophase
2) Prophase 3) Metaphase 4) Anaphase 5) Telophase |
|
|
Prophase
|
Chromatins begin to condense along cell plate into chromosomes
|
|
|
Chromatids
|
half a chromosome, but when separated become chromosomes, hold replicated DNA of chromosomes
|
|
|
Histones (what do they do)
|
Organize chromosomes when they condense to preserve order
|
|
|
Kinetochore
|
A protein structure on chromatids that pulls sister chromatids apart
|
|
|
Sister chromatids
|
Chromatids joined by the centromere
|
|
|
Metaphase
|
The mitotic spindle is formed
|
|
|
Anaphase
|
Chromosomes divide very quickly to poles
|
|
|
Cytokenesis, what is it caused by?
|
The actual division of the cell, caused by the cell plate
|
|
|
Telophase
|
Cell plate and nucleolus is formed
|
|
|
What is the end result of Mitosis?
|
Identical genetic information going into either cell
|
|
|
Diploid cell
|
Contains two sets of chromosomes
|
|
|
Haploid cell
|
One complete set of chromosomes
|
|
|
Meiosis is a process of (blank) cell to #(blank) cells
|
diploid to four haploid
|
|
|
Gamete
|
A cell that unites with another gamete to produce a diploid zygote
|
|
|
Syngamy
|
When two gametes fuse to form a zygote
|
|
|
Gene
|
Unit of heredity in an organism (DNA/RNA)
|
|
|
Locus
|
Location at which a gene is found
|
|
|
Allele
|
An alternative form of a gene (blue/brown eyes)
|
|
|
Homolog
|
A pair of chromosomes that have two identical chromatids
|
|
|
When homologs wrap together, it's called
|
Synapsis (difference between meiosis and mitosis)
|
|
|
Crossing over, what is the result?
|
When two different chromatids attach to each other, can happen multiple times, the result is the chromatids becoming different and obtaining different alleles
|
|
|
Prophase I
|
Homologs come together in pairs and coil around one another
|
|
|
Metaphase I
|
Paired chromosomes move on the metaphase plate, centromeres evenly distributed on sides of equatorial plane of spindle
|
|
|
Anaphase I
|
Paired chromosomes separate
|
|
|
Metaphase II
|
Centromeres are now lying on the plane and chromosomes are lined up at the equatorial plane
|
|
|
Anaphase II
|
Centromeres separate and chromatids move away from each other
|
|
|
Centromere
|
Thing that binds two homologs together
|
|
|
Telophase II
|
Four new nuclei now exists, each a haploid cell
|
|
|
What are the step of Meiosis?
|
1) Prophase I
2) Metaphase I 3) Anaphase I 4) Metaphase II 5) Anaphase II 6) Telophase II |
|
|
Law of Segregation
|
Alleles segregate from each other and join randomly during meiosis when they split apart (Y and y randomly get paired)
|
|
|
Law of Independent Assortment
|
Alleles of one trait don't affect how often alleles from other traits are chosen
|
|
|
Gregor Mendel, year?
|
Worked with peas, looked at multiple generations of plants and how they changed (1866)
|
|
|
Homozygous
|
Same Allele
|
|
|
Heterozygous
|
Different Allele
|
|
|
Name 3 ways mutations occur
|
1) Radiation
2) Transposons 3) Polyploidy |
|
|
Transposons
|
(Jumping genes) Segments of DNA move from one chromosome to another, form mutations
|
|
|
Polyploidy
|
Duplication of whole sets of chromosomes
|
|
|
Why is sexual reproduction favored?
|
Because it provides variation for a species
|
|
|
Vegetative/Asexual reproduction
|
Progeny have exact same genes as parents, can sexually reproduce with itself
|
|
|
When was DNA discovered?
|
1869
|
|
|
What are chromosomes made of?
|
DNA and protein
|
|
|
MacLoed and McCarty, year?
|
DNA causes bacterial transformation (1944)
|
|
|
Chargaff, year?
|
Came up with Adenine amount = Thymine amount and Guanine amount = Cytosine amount (1947)
|
|
|
Watson and Crick, year?
|
DNA has a alpha double helix shape, (1953)
|
|
|
Maelson and Stahl, year?
|
DNA division is semi-conservative (1958)
|
|
|
What does Helicase do?
|
Unzips DNA by eliminating hydrogen bonds
|
|
|
DNA polymerase function?
|
Replicates DNA from 5 C side to 3 C
|
|
|
Transcription
|
Synthesis of RNA, (DNA transcribes info onto RNA)
|
|
|
What is RNA's function?
|
Translates information onto proteins
|
|
|
Translation
|
Ribosome mediated synthesis of a protein
|
|
|
What attaches to an unzipped piece of DNA?
|
mRNA
|
|
|
What does an anticodon do?
|
Attaches to codon on tRNA
|
|
|
What are the 3 stages of protein synthesis?
|
1) Initiation
2) Elongation 3) Termination |
|
|
Initiation
|
Small ribosomal subunit attaches to 5' end of mRNA (long strip) and the first tRNA molecule attaches to the initiation codon then the large ribosomal subunit comes and attaches
|
|
|
Elongation
|
A polypeptide (protein) is formed as more tRNA attach and detach
|
|
|
Termination
|
Termination (stop) codon, the protein is released
|
|
|
Codon
|
A sequence of three molecules, codons make up mRNA
|
|
|
Transcription Factors
|
A specific protein that attaches to specific DNA sequences, controlling the info to mRNA
|
|
|
What happens when methylation occurs?
|
Transcription can no longer take place
|
|
|
Charles Darwin's most famous voyage, year?
|
HMS Beagle (1831)
|
|
|
What four factors convinced Darwin of evolution?
|
1) Over Production
2) Variation 3) Natural Selection 4) Long Time |
|
|
Malthus, year?
|
Book on overproduction (1798)
|
|
|
When was the Origin Of Species published?
|
1860
|
|
|
Gene Pool
|
Sum of all alleles in a population
|
|
|
Fitness
|
The ability of the passage of genes to the next generation
|
|
|
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium conditions, year? (5)
|
1) No mutations
2) Large population 3) Isolation from other populations 4) Random Mating 5) Absence of Selection |
|
|
Genetic Drift
|
Genotypes eliminated in mass destruction of population
|
|
|
Founder Effect
|
When species migrate to new areas, there is a chance the allele frequency changed
|
|
|
Does the allele frequency change in non-random mating?
|
No
|
|
|
Biological species concept
|
If individuals can breed together, they are the same species
|
|
|
Morphological species concept
|
If individuals look very similar, they are the same species
|
|
|
Allopatric Speciation
|
Gene flow is disrupted due to natural causes (mountains rising)
|
|
|
What is Sympatric speciation and what causes it?
|
Nondisjunction occurs in meiosis, autopolyploid organism is formed due to a mistake where the homologs don't separate
|
|
|
Introgression
|
Buffalo Cattle example, a gene from a completely different type of species is found in an organism, even though phenotype is identical to its parents
|
|
|
Systematics
|
Look at how closely related species are from their origins/ancestors
|
|
|
Taxonomy
|
Identifying, naming and classifying all organisms
|
|
|
Linnaeus, year?
|
Wrote Species Planterum, used Latin to identify plants and came up with binomial structure
|
|
|
Genus
|
Group an organism is related to
|
|
|
Epithet
|
Specific name within a genus
|
|
|
Convergent evolution
|
Different origins of structures, but now perform same tasks
|
|
|
Divergent evolution
|
Similar structures now used for different tasks
|
|
|
3 Major differences in meiosis/mitosis
|
1) 2 nuclear divisions in meiosis, one in mitosis (same amount of DNA replications though)
2) 4 haploid cells in meiosis with half the chromosomes, 2 diploid cells in mitosis 3) Different gene combinations in meiosis, identical DNA in mitosis |
|
|
Linkage
|
Genes close together on genetic maps show how much each gene segregates
|
|
|
What is the difference between DNA and RNA?
|
RNA is made of uracil and 3 other nucleotides and DNA is made of Thymine and 3 other nucleotides
|
|
|
Phylogenetic Species Concept
|
Define species in terms of ancestry
|
|
|
Nucleolus and its function
|
Organelle inside nucleus concerned with producing ribosomes
|
|
|
Hydrolysis
|
The breaking down of a molecule by adding water
|
|
|
Rubisco
|
Enzyme that catalyzes the carboxylation of RuBP
|
|
|
During Cellular Respiration what happens to Glucose?
|
Gets oxidized
|
|
|
What are the four major types of orghanic molecules?
|
1) Protein
2) Lipids 3) Carbs 4) Nucleotides |
|
|
Anabolic Process
|
Endergonic reactions (take energy, like forming polysaccarides)
|
|
|
Catabolic Process
|
Exergonic reactions (give off energy, like polysaccarides being broken down into glucose)
|
