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167 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the components of blood? |
Blood plasma (proteins, water and other solutes) and formed elements including platelets, WBC and RBCs |
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What are the 5 WBCs? |
Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and Basophils |
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Describe the characteristics of Blood |
Shape is bioconcave, size is 7.5 micrometers, no nucleus, flexible |
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What is the difference between a smear and a section? |
Smear there are no structures wheres a section has structures |
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What is haemopoiesis? |
Formation of RBCs |
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What does the formation of RBCs occur in prenatal, child and adult? |
Prenatal = yolk sac, liver and speen Child = red bone marrow Adult = red bone marrow and vertebra, sternum and rib |
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What do sinusoids enable? |
Entry for mature cells |
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What are the 4 steps in blood cell formation? |
Pluripotential stem cells (PLURI) Multipotential stem cells (MULI) Precursor cells -> BLAST Site chosen (SITE) - can be erythrocytes, b lymphocytes, monocytes, mast cells etc |
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What is the first step to prepare precursor cells for protein production? |
Flurry of ribosomes |
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What does erythropoiesis start with? |
Proerythroblast which becomes smaller in size and goes through mitotic divisions to become polychromatophilic erythroblast |
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What occurs after the polychromatophilic erythroblast? |
Becomes a normoblast which gets rid of nucleus |
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Does size increase of decrease during erythropoiesis? |
Decrease |
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How does the staining change during erythropoiesis? |
Basophilic to acidophilic |
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What are the nuclear changes that occur during erythropoiesis? |
Shrinkage/condensation of nucleus then extrusion |
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What happens to the nucleus once its extruded? |
Macrophages take it up |
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What are the erythropoiesis requirements? |
Growth factors, Iron, folic acid, vitamin B12 |
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What growth factors are needed for erythropoiesis? Where is it made? |
EPO - erythropoietin which is made in the kidneys |
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What is the lifespan of RBCs? |
120 days |
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How are RBCs destroyed and recycled? Where does this occur? |
Macrophages breakdown haemoglobin and recycle the iron in the spleen |
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What RBC indices are used? |
Concentration of haemoglobin |
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What is aneamia? |
Decrease in oxygen carrying capacity of the blood |
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What does a differential of WBC count use? |
% value for the number of a type of WBC present in a count of about 100 WBCs |
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How is a blood smear prepared? |
Draw blood (through Lumbar puncture) then blood placed on slide and analysed through a microscope |
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How is staining of blood smears done? |
Blood dyes like the Romanovsky dye |
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How are granular leukocytes named? |
By their staining of granules Neutrophils = neutral staining eosinophils = eosin staining basophils = basic staining |
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What are two non-granular leukocytes? |
Lymphocytes and monocytes |
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Describe how a non-specific granule looks |
Larger, sparse and only produced in promyelocyte stage of development |
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What are neutrophils used for? |
Destroying bacteria |
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Which is the most common WBC? |
Neutrophils |
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Do all neutrophils look the same? |
No |
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What is the structure of a neutrophil? |
Contains lysosomes, glycogen, pseudopodia, microfilaments and microtrubules |
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How does glycogen relate to a neutrophil function? |
It enables anaerobic metabolism |
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How do lysosomes relate to a neutrophil function? |
They produce bactericidal chemicals, have a range of hydrolytic enzymes for bacteria wall destruction and contain complement activators for inflammation reaction |
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What are pseudopodia formed from and what is their functional significance in a neutrophil? |
Formed by microfilaments and provide phagocytosis |
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What do microtubules provide in a neutrophil? |
Intracellular movement |
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What are 50% of neutrophils in, when in circulation? |
Margination |
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What is margination? |
Free-flowing leukocytes exit central blood stream and initiate leukocyte and endothelial cell interactions |
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______ neutrophils react with ______ receptors on endothelial cells |
Selectin |
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What type of bonds are neutrophils making constantly when rolling along the capillary wall? |
Weak ones with selectins |
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What happens when a neutrophil detects an abnormality? |
Mast cell will come in and screw crap up |
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What do neutrophils do in response to injury (and their migration) |
Chemokines are released from endothelial cells which induce expression of integrin adhesion molecules on neutrophils. The neutrophils can then bind to endothelial cells |
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What does the binding of neutrophils to endothelial cells stimulate? |
Mast cell to releases histamine that opens intercellular junction between endothelial cells |
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What do neutrophils do during diapedesis? |
Neutrophils are induced to extend pseydopodia and squeeze through gap in capillary wall |
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What function do neutrophils have for phagocytosis? |
They release powerful destructive mechanisms to neutralise an abnormal component |
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Which leukocyte is for parasites? |
Eosinophils |
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Where are eosinophils most numerous? |
Gut mucosa |
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What do eosinophils modulate? |
Mast cell secretion including histamine release |
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What size of granules do basophiles have? |
Very large which obscure the nucleus |
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What is the function of basophils? |
Allergy reactions |
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What receptors do Basophils have? |
IgE |
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How can you tell a lymphocyte with a light microscope? |
Small, non-granular, huge nucleus and basophilic purplish thing |
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What is the function of lymphocytes? |
Immune reactions |
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When do lymphocyte numbers increase? |
Viral infection, lymphoid leukaemia and chronic infections |
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What do large lymphocytes mainly represent? |
NK Cells |
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What are the functions of monocytes? |
Transform into macrophages |
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Where do monocytes leave circulation? |
At site of inflammation |
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What are platelets also known as? |
Thrombocytes |
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What is the function of platelets? |
Hemostasis |
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What is the origin of platelets? |
Cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes that reside in bone marrow |
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What is granulopoiesis? |
Neutrophil differentiation |
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What is a myeloblast? |
Precursor cell of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils |
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Where do maturing and mature neutrophils get stored? |
Medullary storage |
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What occurs to the shape in granulopoiesis? |
Nuclear shapes changes from round to segmented, nuclear heterochromatin increases and nucleoli is less visible |
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When do non-specific granules appear in the cytoplasm during granulopoiesis? |
At promyelocyte stage |
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What follows the appearance of non-specific granules? |
Specific granules |
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Describe what happens with neutrophils in less than 12 hours after a bacterial infection in the finger occurs? |
Neutrophilia are at the site of infection |
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What happens in 48 hours of the infection for neutrophils? |
Neutrophilia are maintained by neutrophils and band cells in the medullary storage entering circulation |
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What happens in 7 days of the infection? |
Ongoing neutrophilia maintained by increased granulopoiesis and reduced medullary storage and reduced numbers in margination |
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What is acute myeloid leukaemia? |
Uncontrolled division of myeoloblasts and promyelocysts |
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What occurs during acute myeoloid leukaemia in terms of cells? |
Increase proliferation of immature blast cells |
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What happens as myloblasts and promyelocysts increase in number? |
Leave less room for megakaryocytes and RBCs to live in bone marrow |
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What is chronic myeloid leukaemia? |
Increase proliferation of more mature cells: myelocysts and metamyelocysts |
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What is the tissue in the tunica intima, tunica media and tunica adventitia? |
Intima = epithelium, loose CT Media = smooth muscle Adventitia = dense CT |
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What are the functions of the tunica intima, media and adventitia? |
Intima = lining Media = varies diameter of lumen Adventitia = tough, protective outer coating |
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What does the adventitia merge with? |
CT outside blood vessel |
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What makes the adventitia tough? |
Lots of collagen fibres |
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Does the tunica intima of an artery only have endothelium or more to it? |
It also has a basement membrane and loose CT as well as internal elastic lamina |
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What is the endothelium of an artery made out of? |
Simple squamous epithelium |
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Where is the external elastic lamina in an artery? |
Tunica media |
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What is the Intima media made up of? |
Smooth muscle, elastin, reticular fibres, proteoglycan |
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What is the Adventitia made up of |
Collagen fibres, few elastic fibres, vaso vasorum |
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What does the vasa vasorum do? |
Supply blood to outer wall of vessel |
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What innervates the blood vessels? |
Efferent and afferent sympathetic fibres |
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Where do efferent fibres terminate? |
On the blood vessel from the periphery |
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What does innervation provide? |
Neural control of smooth muscle |
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Where is innervation most important? |
Media of arteries and arterioles |
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What is the structure of elastic arteries? |
high pressure, fast flowing, blood high |
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What are the structural variations of the elastic arteries relating to function? |
Elastin laminae for passive stretch and recoil Vas vasorum in adventitia which provides nutrients and oxygen to outer regions of vessel wall |
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Does the aorta have lots of vaso vasorum and if it does/doesn't, why? |
Does, because needs blood supply due to thick wall |
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What do elastic arteries act as? |
Pressure reservoir |
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What is systole? |
Heart contracting |
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What is diastole? |
When ventricles relax and refill |
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What is Marphins syndrome? |
When elastin isn't manufactured properly so aorta loses its elasticity which can lead to fatality |
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Do arterioles have higher or lower muscle content? |
Higher |
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What is the pressure and lumen size like in an arteriole? |
Pressure drops and lumen is small |
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What causes high blood pressure? |
Arterioles become constricted |
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Why is smooth muscle tone vital to arterioles? |
Because it provides peripheral resistance to blood flow |
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What is the function of arterioles? |
Flow regulator |
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What forms diastolic pressure? |
Muscle resistance that the heart has to work against |
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What do veins and venules act as? |
Blood reservoir |
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What is the pressure, blood flow and muscle content like in a vein? |
Low pressure, slow blood flow, low muscle content |
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What happens to veins if blood isn't present? |
They collapse |
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In veins which is usually thicker: media or adventitia? |
Adventitia |
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What does collage in the adventitia of veins prevent? |
Overdistention |
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What are the cusps of valves in veins made of? |
Tunica Intima |
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What does skeletal muscle contracting encourage with valves? |
To shut so as to prevent blood flow from pooling down at the bottom of body |
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What is DVT? |
Deep Vein Thrombosis - pooling of blood in bottom of body and clots may form. This clot can then move when you start to move and move to somewhere like the lungs which can constrict the arteries there |
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What is the surface area, pressure and blood flow like in capillaries? |
Surface area is large, blood pressure drops, blood flow is slow |
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Is there media or adventitia in capillaries? |
No |
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What are present inbetween the epithelial cells of the capillaries |
Intercellular tight junctions |
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What are pinocytotic vesicles? |
Exchange system for substances to come out of the cardiovascular system into the tissues or vice versa |
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What are fenestrae? |
Holes/gaps which enable certain molecules to be more or less permeable |
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What are the specialised functions of the capillaries in the intestines, kidneys, skin and endocrine glands |
Intestines = absorb nutrients Kidneys = produce urinary filtrate Skin = control body temp Endocrine glands = site of entry for hormones |
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Describe the endothelial cells of capillaries |
They are anti-thrombogenic and can activate/inactivate blood-borne compounds as well as breakdown lipoproteins to triglycerides and cholesterol |
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What does anti-thrombogenic mean? |
Prevent blood clotting naturally |
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What is a pericyte? |
Found in most capillaries and is located within basal lamina |
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What are the assumed functions of a pericyte? |
Contractile, phagocytic, source of smooth muscle/fibroblasts |
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What are the 3 types of capillaries? |
Continuous, Fenestrated and Sinusoid |
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Which is the most widespread capillary type? |
Continuous capillary |
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Where are continuous capillaries found? |
CTs, lungs and muscle |
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Where are the very tight junction capillaries found and what are there features? |
Found in CNS of the blood-brain barrier and blood-thymic barrier. Features include very tight junctions, few pinocytotic vesiscles and they restrict exchange between blood and tissue |
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Where are fenestrated capillaries found? |
Endocrine glands and intestines |
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Describe the appearance of sinusoid capillaries including what cells they have, the basement membrane and where they are found |
Have macrophages, basement membrane is discontinuous, and found in liver, spleen and bone marrow |
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What is collateral circulation? |
Intestines and skin |
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Where are end arteries present? |
Heart, brain and kidneys |
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What is the most widespread microcirculation? |
Arteriole -> metarterioles -> capillary bed -> venules |
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What are metarterioles? |
Arteriolar branches with discontinuous muscle |
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What does the most widespread pattern of microcirculation do? |
Regulate blood flow to capillaries |
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Describe the arteriovenous anastomosis microcirculation
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Blood is challened to surface or retained deeper and is a direct link between arteriole and vein |
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What is arteriovenous anastomosis important for? |
Thermoregulation |
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Describe the venous portal system of microcirculation |
Vein to capillaries to vein |
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What is an example of the venous portal system? |
Hepatic portal vein in the liver |
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What is the pericardium? |
Outside of heart |
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What are two coronary arteries of the heart? |
Right and left |
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What are the three layers of the heart? |
Endocardium, myocardium, epicardium |
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Describe the endocardium |
Contains endothelium, loose CT, special conducting fibres called Purkinje fibres |
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Describe the myocardium |
Thickest layer, cardiac muscle fibre, rich capillary network accompanied by delicate CT |
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Describe the epicardium |
Dense CT with occasionally fat deposits |
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What does the epicardium form? |
Visceral layer of serous pericardium |
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What controls the continuous rhythmic contractions of the cardiac muscle? |
Intercalated discs |
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What provide a source of energy for cardiac muscle? |
Triglycerides, glucose, glycogen |
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What do desmosomes do in the cardiac muscle? |
Bind cells together and prevent separation during contraction |
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What do gap junctions in cardiac muscles allow? |
Depolarisation |
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Where is the SA node? |
Right Atrium of heart |
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Where does the SA node pulse through? |
Pulse comes out of node and travels through cardiac muscle fibres and spreads throughout the atrium however it cannot spread to the ventricles |
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Why can't the pulse from the SA node spread to the ventricles? |
Because there is fibrous CT between ventricle and atrium? |
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Why does the body not allow the SA node to spread to the ventricles? |
So you can regulate what happens in the atrium seperate from the ventricle |
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Where is the Atrioventricular (AV) Node? |
AV bundles and Bundles of His |
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Where does the AV node receive a signal from? |
SA node |
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Where does the AV node signal travel to? |
Down to right and left branch and connect to Purkinje fibres |
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What are Purkinje Fibres? |
Modified cardiac muscle cells which are specialised for rapid spread of depolarisation through the heart |
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What do the Purkinje fibres allow? |
Coordinated unified contraction of heart muscle |
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Describe the structure of the pericardium |
Has pericardial cavity, continuous and double layered membrane that surrounds the heart and encloses a narrow fluid filled space |
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What are the layers of the pericardium? Describe them |
Epicardium which forms the visceral layer of serous pericardium and has mesothelium covering |
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Why does the serous pericardium have a mesothelium lining? |
For slippery surface to glide over heart |
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What is the function of the pericardium? |
Keeps heart in place, joined to diaphragm, prevents over stretching of the heart and enables the heart to beat independently of the thoracic contents |
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What happens to blood during systole? |
Blood is ejected from the heart |
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What happens to the blood during diastole? |
Blood flows from atria to ventricles |
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Where are valves present? |
At exit of each of the 4 chambers of the heart |
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What does the closure of valves create? |
Vibrations in the heart and blood that form the 'lub dub' sound |
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Which valves form the 'lub' sound and which form the 'dub' sound? |
Lub = AV valves vlosing Dub = semilunar valves closing |
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What is the structure of the semilunar valves? |
Cusp, thin endocardium covering, core of dense CT that is continuous with cardiac skeleton |
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Which side of the AV valves is mitral/bicuspid? |
Left |
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What is special about the right AV valve? |
Has 3 cusps |
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How is the valves inverting into atria during high pressure in the ventricles during systole overcome? |
By strong CT chords called chordae tendinae which connect cusps to papillary muscles in ventricles |
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Describe the cardiac skeleton |
Tough, dense CT and separates atria from valves while forming solid rim to valves |
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What is the interventricular septum? |
Wall between ventricles |
