Biology Test Revision

Front 1

1. List the structures that make up the integumentary system:

Back 1

1. the skin,
2. the accessory structures,
3. the hair,
4. the nails and
5. the glands.

Front 2

2. What type of tissue is the skin made up of?

Back 2

1. epidermis &
2. dermis.
*The hypodermis is not part of the layers of the skin but is the foundation for the skin to build on.

The epidermis is made up of 'squamous epithelium' that sits on top of the dermis.

The dermis is a 'connective tissue' layer that sits on top of the hypodermis and forms the support structures of the skin.

The hypodermis is made up of 'loose connective tissue' with collagen fibres, elastin fibres, adipose cells, fibroblasts and macrophages.

Front 3

3. List & describe the five functions of skin:

Back 3

1. Protection (Immunity)
2. Sensation (Touch)
3. Vitamin D production
4. Excretion (Sweat)
5. Temperature regulation

Front 4

4. Describe the foundation layer that underlies the 2 layers of the skin:

Back 4

1. The hypodermis is :

2. also called the subcutaneous layer.
3. It is not part of the layers of the skin but is the foundation for the skin to build on.
4. The hypodermis attaches the dermis to the underlying bone and muscle
5. supplies the skin with blood vessels and nerves.
6. made up of loose connective tissue with collagen fibres, elastin fibres, adipose cells, fibroblasts and macrophages.
7. The adipose tissue (fat) insulates the body, helping to conserve heat and protect the underlying organs from mechanical shock.
8. Over half the body's fat is contained in the hypodermis,
9. the distribution of this fat is responsible for the contours of the female body.
10. As people age, fat and elastic fibres within the subcutaneous layer decreases causing wrinkles.

Front 5

5. Describe the structure & function of the dermis:

Back 5

1. don't (DERMIS:)
2. recycle (Reticular)
3. paper (Papillary)
4. diapers (Dermal)

Front 6

5. Describe the structure & function of the dermis:

Back 6

1. The dermis sits between the hypodermis and epidermis.
2. is the thickest part of the two layers of skin.
3. thicker on soles of feet and palms of hands, thinner on scrotum and eyelids.
4. typically is thinner in females than males.
5. The dermis is connective tissue and consists of collagen and elastic fibres in between a few fat cells and blood vessels and many nerves, hair follicles and glands.
6. The dermis is divided into two distinct connective tissue layers:
* The superficial papillary layer.
* The deep reticular layer.

Front 7

6. How are finger prints formed?

Back 7

'The superficial papillary layer' contains
'fine finger-like projections' called
'papillae'.
The patterns in these papillae are what produces your distinct finger prints.

Front 8

7. Describe the structure & function of the epidermis:

Back 8

1. made up of keratinised stratified squamous epithelium.
2. thinner than the dermis layer.
3. contains no blood vessels.
4. supplied with oxygen from the capillaries in the papillary layer of the dermis.
5. four layers of the epidermis which combined are 0.1 mm thick.
6. The palms of the hands and soles of the feet have an extra epidermal layer.

Front 9

8. List & briefly describe the five layers of the epidermis:

Back 9

every ( epidermis )
1. cute (corneum)
2. lady (lucidum)
3. gets (granulosum)
4. sexy (spinosum)
5. boys/guys (basale/germinativum)

Front 10

8. List & briefly describe the five layers of the epidermis:

Back 10

5. Stratum basale or stratum germinativum - deepest layer, made up of a single layer cuboidal or columnar cells known as keratinocytes, enables the skin to repair itself.

4. Stratum spinosum - sits above the stratum basale (#5) and consists of 8 - 10 layers of multi-sided keratinocytes, gives the skin strength and flexibility.

3. Stratum granulosum - made up of 2 - 5 layers of elongated diamond shape cells, gives the skin its water-repellent properties.

2. Stratum lucidum - only present in the thick skin of the fingertips, palms and soles of the feet. It is a thin clear zone, consisting of 3 - 5 layers of keratinocytes that are full of keratin.

1. Stratum corneum - most superficial layer of the epidermis containing 25 - 30 layers of squamous cells that are completely filled with keratin. The cells in this layer flake off by the millions, in a process known as desquamation, while millions of epithelial cells are reproduced daily to replace the ones that are shed.

Front 11

9. Which layer of the stratum is only found in thick skin?

Back 11

Layer #2. Stratum lucidum - only present in the thick skin of the fingertips, palms and soles of the feet.

Front 12

10. Where does skin cell growth occur?

Back 12

Layer #5. Stratum basale or stratum germinativum - enables the skin to repair itself.

Front 13

11. Describe the movement of & changes in keratinocytes as they move from the basale layer to the corneum layer:

Back 13

5. The keratinocytes in (#5) the stratum basale are stem cells that are continuously dividing and reproducing more keratinocytes, enabling the skin to repair itself.
* As new cells are produced, they push the cells above them towards the surface.
4. Keratinisation of the cells begins in (#4) the stratum spinosum as keratin fibres appear. These keratin fibres gives the skin strength and flexibility.
3. The cytoplasm of the cells in (#3) the stratum granulosum fill with keratin and the nucleus and organelles fragment and die. The cells look grainy, as more protein granules are produced within the cell. The cells start to release their lipid contents into the spaces between the cells which gives the skin its water-repellent properties.
2. The stratum lucidium is a thin clear zone, consisting of 3 - 5 layers of keratinocytes that are full of keratin.
1. The stratum corneum is the most superficial layer of the epidermis containing 25 - 30 layers of squamous cells that are completely filled with keratin. The cells in this layer flake off by the millions, in a process known as desquamation, while millions of epithelial cells are reproduced daily to replace the ones that are shed.
* It can take 40-56 days for the cells of the stratum basale to make their way to the top layer of the epidermis. (a month +1/3rd - 2 months)

Front 14

12. What gives skin its waterproof properties?

Back 14

3. The cytoplasm of the cells in (#3) the stratum granulosum fill with keratin and the nucleus and organelles fragment and die. The cells look grainy, as more protein granules are produced within the cell. *The cells start to release their lipid contents into the spaces between the cells which gives the skin its water-repellent properties.

Front 15

13. What is the name of the process when dead skin cells flake off?

Back 15

Desquamation.

Front 16

14. Describe the structure of hair?

Back 16

*Hair is composed of a keratin similar to that in the epidermis,
* is divided into the shaft (found above the skin)
*and the root (found below the skin).

*Shaft
*Follicle
*External root sheath
*Internal root sheath
*Medulla (inner)
*Cortex
*Cuticle
* Derma Papilla (Base/Bulb)

Front 17

15. What is the function of hair?

Back 17

The hair has a 'protective function'.
for example, eyelashes prevent things falling in the eyes and hair on the head protects from sunburn in summer and heat loss in winter.

Front 18

16. What is the purpose of the arrector pili muscle & where is it found?

Back 18

* These muscles contract in response to fear or cold to pull the hair follicle into a vertical position and make the hair stand up straight.

* attached to the papillary layer of the dermis and the hair follicles.

*The skin around the shaft of the hair also gets pulled up straight causing goose bumps to form.

Front 19

17. List the 4 types of glands found in the skin, where they are found & what are their secretions

Back 19

1. Sudoriferous glands = Sweat Glands:
* Eccrine glands - secrete water to the 'total body surface', eccrine glands open by a duct directly onto the skin surface.
* Apocrine glands - apocrine glands usually develop in association with hair follicles and open into them. They secrete a fatty sweat into the gland tubule. Emotional stress causes the tubule wall to contract, expelling the fatty secretion to the skin, where local bacteria break it down into odorous fatty acids, in the 'underarm' and in 'genital regions'.

2. Sebaceous glands secrete an oily substance known as 'sebum' into the 'hair follicle'. found in the 'face' and 'scalp', the 'lips', 'tip of the penis' and 'labia minora'.

3. Ceruminous glands are only found in the 'ear canal'. They are a type of modified sweat gland which produces 'cerumen' (ear wax).

4. Mammary glands are modified sweat glands located in the breasts that produce milk.

Front 20

18. What are finger nails composed of?

Back 20

*composed of 'stratum corneum'.

They are tightly packed with keratin that becomes hard and plate-like and protect the ends of the fingers and toes.

(Corn-Hard-Nail)

Front 21

19. How do stretch marks occur?

Back 21

Stretch marks, or striae, are due to tears in the 'reticular layer' of the 'dermis' caused by extreme stretching.

Front 22

20. What contributes to skin colour?

Back 22

* Melanocytes are found in the stratum basale and produce melanin. This melanin is a pigment that produces the colour of the skin, hair and eyes, is produced in greater amounts after exposure to UV light.
* circulating blood,
* the thickness of stratum corneum.

Front 23

21. How is vitamin D synthesized by the body?

Back 23

* skin is exposed to ultraviolet radiation,
* a precursor molecule in the skin is activated to form vitamin D,
* This molecule is modified by the liver and kidneys to produce an active form of vitamin D.

Front 24

22. List the changes that occur in the skin due to aging?

Back 24

As people age, the amount of fat and elastic fibres within the subcutaneous (hypodermis {bottom}) layer decreases causing wrinkles.

Front 25

23. What is the function of the skeletal system?

Back 25

1. Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Blood cell production (Bone Marrow)
5. Storage (Fat, Calcium, Potassium)

Front 26

24. Name the different bones in the body:

Back 26

1: Compact bone,
2: Cancellous (Spongy) bone.

Front 27

25. Discuss briefly the functions of bone:

Back 27

* Bone provides a framework for the body.
* Supports soft tissues.
* Provides points of attachment for many skeletal muscles.
* Encloses organs to protect them.
* Bone marrow found in the cavities of bones produce blood cells & platelets.
* Fat, Ca++ (Calcium) & PO4ˉ (Potassium) are stored in bone from the blood stream.

Front 28

26. Describe the difference between compact bone & cancellous bone:

Back 28

Compact Bone:
* Forms the external layer of all bones.
* Provides protection & support.
* Helps bones resist weight bearing stress.
* Contains more bone matrix than spaces.
* Matrix is tightly packed & arranged in circles (osteon) around a central canal which contain blood vessels & nerves.
* Osteocytes found in spaces of the matrix.

Cancellous bone:
* Also called spongy bone as it resembles a sponge.
* Contains more spaces than bone matrix.
* Bone matrix is made up of interconnecting beams of bone called trabeculae.
* Osteocytes exist within the trabeculae.
* Osteoblasts & osteoclasts exist on the walls of the trabeculae.
* Blood vessels & bone marrow fill the canals between the trabeculae.
* Found where strength but lightness is required.

Front 29

27. Draw a diagram of a long bone and label the following components:
* Diaphysis,
* epiphysis,
* metaphysis,
* medullary cavity,
* periosteum,
* endosteum,
* articular cartilage

Back 29

Front 30

28. What are an osteoblast, osteocyte & osteoclast?

Back 30

* Osteoblasts: produced from stem cells.

* Osteocytes: are mature osteoblasts.

* Osteoclasts: made in the red bone marrow.
They have a ruffled border which has an acid environment causing decalcification of bone .

Front 31

29. What are the functions of these cells?

Back 31

* Osteoblasts: are the bone forming cells that create the matrix of bone & mineralises bone.

* Osteocytes: they maintain the matrix.

* Osteoclasts: are responsible for the breakdown of bone (resorption).
They have a ruffled border which has an acid environment causing decalcification of bone .

Front 32

30. Briefly describe the five different types of bone:

Back 32

1. Long:Length is > than width & slightly curved for strength.

2. Short: Cube shaped nearly equal in length & width.

3. Flat: Generally thin & composed of 2 parallel plates of compact bone with spongy bone in between.

4. Irregular: Complex shaped & do not fit into any other group.

5. Sesamoid: Small bones embedded in tendons where considerable pressure develops.
Eg, thumb, great toe, patella.

(6. Sutural: Small bones located within the cranial sutures or joints.)

Front 33

31. What are the functions of the vertebral column?

Back 33

* Protects the spinal cord.
* Supports the head & trunk.
* Ribs & muscles of the back attach to the vertebral column.

Front 34

32. Name the five regions in the vertebrae & how many vertebrae are in each of those regions.

Back 34

C = Cervical = 7.
T = Thoracic = 12.
L = Lumbar = 5.
S = Sacrum = 5 fused into 1,
C = Coccyx = 4 fused into 1,

Front 35

33. What are the functions of the atlas and axis?

Back 35

* C1 (atlas) supports the head.
It allows nodding of the head (nodding for yes).

* C2 (axis) acts as a pivot on which the atlas and head rotate.
It allow side to side rotation (turning head from side to side for no).

Front 36

34. How many true ribs are there?

Back 36

7 pairs.

Front 37

35. What is a false rib?

Back 37

3 pairs 8, 9, and 10 attach to each other and then to the cartilage of the 7th rib.

Front 38

36. Differentiate between the bones in the appendicular and the bones in the axial skeleton.

Back 38

Appendicular:
* Upper and lower limbs.
* Pelvic girdle.
* Pectoral girdles.

Axial:
* Skull.
* Vertebrae.
* Thorax (ribs & sternum).

Front 39

37. What are the identified subdivisions of the sternum?

Back 39

* manubrium,
* body &
* xiphoid process.

* Sternal angle is the junction of the manubrium & body.
* Suprasternal notch is the depression in the anterior surface of the manubrium.

Front 40

38. Identify the bones & suture lines of the skull:

Back 40

8 cranial =
1 Frontal bone .
2 parietals.
2 temporals.
1 Occipital.
1 Ethmoid.
1 Sphenoid .

14 facial bones.
2 nasal.
2 maxilla.
2 zygomatic arch.
2 lacrimal.
2 palatine .
2 inferior nasal concha.
1 Mandible .
1 Vomer.

Coronal: suture unites the frontal & 2 parietal bones.

Sagittal: suture unites the 2 parietal bones.

Lambdoid: suture unites the parietal & occipital bones.

Squamous: suture unites the parietal & temporal bones.

C S L S

Front 41

39. List the three different types of joints classified according to structure. Give an example of each.

Back 41

Fibrous - Suture Joints in skull bones.
Cartilaginous - epiphyseal plates of growing bones & Vertebra joints.
Synovial - Knee, Hip.

Front 42

40. List the different types of joints classified according to function. Give an example of each.

Back 42

Synarthrotic - Joints with little or no movement = Suture Joints in skull bones.

Amphiarthrotic - Slightly moveable joints = intervertebral disks (spine).

Diarthrotic - Freely moveable synovial joints = Knee, Hip.

Front 43

41. What is the function of bursae?

Back 43

A closed sac or envelope lined with synovial membrane and containing synovial fluid, usually found or formed in areas subject to friction (over an exposed or prominent body part or where a tendon passes over a bone).

Front 44

42. Describe the functions of muscle.

Back 44

8 functions of muscle:
1: Body movement,
2: Maintain body posture,
3: Produces heat (75% of body heat),
4: Ventilation (breathing),
5: Communication (speech),
6: Maintain blood pressure,
7: Movement of organs,
8: Blood flow (the heart!).

Front 45

43. What are the characteristics of muscle tissue?

Back 45

1: Contractility.
2: Excitability.
3: Extensibility.
4: Elasticity.

Front 46

44. Differentiate between the three types of muscle tissue and give an example of each in the human body.

Back 46

1: Skeletal,
2: Cardiac,
3: Smooth.

Front 47

45. What is the cell membrane of the muscle cell called?

Back 47

EnPEpF

1: Endomysium: surrounds individual muscle cells (fibres)

2: Perimysium: surrounds fasciculus bundles of 10-100 muscle cells.

3: Epimysium: surrounds the whole muscle & is also called the 'fascia'.

Front 48

47. Briefly describe a muscle cell fibre:

Back 48

a ‘Fibre’.
Long cylindrical cells 1 - 4mm long.
Developed from myoblasts.

Their cytoplasm (sarcoplasm) is filled with protein myofibrils which gives muscle its striped appearance.

Each muscle cell has many nuclei.
They lay just inside the plasma membrane (sarcolemma).
Myofibrils extend from one end of the muscle fibre to the other.

Front 49

48. Describe a fascicle:

Back 49

Several muscle cells fibres then form into a group which is held together by the perimysium. (another connective tissue layer).
This group of muscle cells is called a muscle fascicle.

Front 50

49. Describe the fascia:

Back 50

Epimysium: surrounds the whole muscle & is also called the 'fascia'.

The fascia forms a sheet under the skin & surrounds individual muscles or groups of muscles.
Continuous with the connective tissue of tendons & bones.

Front 51

50. What is the contractile unit of muscle?

Back 51

A sarcomere, or contractile unit.

Front 52

51. What is the role of muscles in maintaining body temperature?

Back 52

Muscle contractions produce heat and as much as 70% of body heat is produced by energy produced in muscle tissue.

When the internal heat of the body reaches too low a level thermoreceptors in the skin relay a message to the hypothalamus in the brain. In response to this signal, the skeletal muscles contract and relax in an involuntary manner (shivering) increasing muscle activity to generate heat. In turn, muscles are also responsive to exterior heat - cold air increases muscle tone, and hot conditions have a relaxing effect on muscles.

Front 53

52. Describe the function of a ligament.

Back 53

Ligaments connect two or more bones together and help stabilize joints.

Front 54

53. Describe the function of a tendon.

Back 54

Tendons attach muscle to bone. Tendons vary in size and are somewhat elastic.

Front 55

54. Describe the function of cartilage.

Back 55

Cartilage provides support within structures.

Front 56

55. Differentiate between the layers of the pericardium?

Back 56

The heart is enclosed in a protective sac called the 'pericardium'
The pericardium consists of two parts:
Layer of fibrous pericardium,
Layer of serous pericardium.

Front 57

56. State the structure and function of the fibrous pericardium.

Back 57

* Thick superficial (outer) layer.
* Is a tough, dense irregular connective tissue.
* Holds the heart in position in the chest.
* It prevents over stretching of the heart.
* Anchors heart to diaphragm and sternum.
* Provides protection from injury and infection.

Front 58

57. State the structure and function of the serous pericardium.

Back 58

* Thin delicate inner layer of pericardium:
- Consists of 2 layers:

1. Parietal layer.
* Internal layer.
*Attached to inside of fibrous pericardium.

2. Visceral layer.
* External layer.
* Also called the epicardium.
* Attached to heart muscle.

Front 59

58. What is the other name for the visceral pericardium?

Back 59

Also called the epicardium.

Front 60

59. Briefly describe the three layers of the heart wall.

Back 60

EpMEn

1. Epicardium.
2. Myocardium.
3. Endocardium.

Front 61

60. List the chambers of the heart.

Back 61

The heart has four chambers.
- Two upper (superior) chambers: 'atria'.
- Two lower (inferior) chambers: 'ventricles'.

Front 62

61. Which blood vessels enter the heart and which blood vessels leave the heart?

Back 62

All 'veins' of the heart 'enter' the heart.

Front 63

62. How does blood return to the heart from the coronary circulation?

Back 63

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Front 64

63. Name the semi-lunar valves and state their location.

Back 64

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Front 65

64. Name the atrioventricular valves & state their location.

Back 65

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Front 66

65. What is the function of heart valves?

Back 66

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Front 67

66. What are chordea tendinae?

Back 67

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Front 68

67. List the components of the electrical conduction system.

Back 68

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Front 69

68. Why is the sinoatrial node (SA Node) called the pace maker of the heart?

Back 69

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Front 70

69. Describe blood flow through the heart, linking the opening and closing of valves, contraction of the chambers and the electrical conduction.

Back 70

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Front 71

70. What is stroke volume?

Back 71

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Front 72

71. What is an ECG?

Back 72

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Front 73

72. What does the P wave represent?

Back 73

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Front 74

73. What does the QRS complex represent?

Back 74

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Front 75

74. What does the T wave represent?

Back 75

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Front 76

75. Define repolarisation and depolarisation.

Back 76

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Front 77

76. Describe the phases of the cardiac cycle.

Back 77

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Front 78

77. What causes heart sounds?

Back 78

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Front 79

78. When does S1 occur?

Back 79

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Front 80

79. When does S2 occur?

Back 80

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Front 81

80. Where the cardiovascular centre located and what is its function?

Back 81

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Front 82

81. What is the role of chemoreceptors, baroreceptors and proprio-receptors in regulating the heart?

Back 82

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Front 83

82. What factors excluding illness affect heart rate?

Back 83

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Front 84

83. Draw a diagram of the heart including the vessels entering and leaving the heart, the chambers, the valves, the conduction system and the wall dividing the right and left side.

Back 84

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Front 85

84. Describe the differences between structure & function of arteries & veins.

Back 85

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Front 86

85. Draw a simple diagram of the direction of blood flow from the left ventricle through the systemic circulation and back to the right atrium.

Back 86

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Front 87

86. What mechanisms assist the return of venous blood to the heart?

Back 87

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Front 88

87. What is the function of the endothelium?

Back 88

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Front 89

88. Differentiate between the systemic and pulmonary circulation.

Back 89

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