Biology Midterm

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Takes observations from the natural world and has a series of steps that are used to test possible answers.

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SCIENCE

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The total number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.

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ATOMIC NUMBER

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States that the treatment has no effect on the outcome of the experiment.

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NULL HYPOTOTHESIS

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Formed when an atom gains or loses an electron.

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ION

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Any condition that can change in an experiment.

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EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLE

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The combination of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

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ATOMIC MASS

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The statement of what you would find in nature if you were to go look for it. "If-then" process

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PREDICTION

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Tests carried out under controlled conditions that researchers manipulate.

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EXPERIMENTS

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Molecules that consist of two or more different elements bonded in proportions that never vary.

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COMPOUND

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A substance that contains only one kind of atom.

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ELEMENT

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Occurs when two atoms share electrons.

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COVALENT BOND

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Results when two or more substances intermingle without bonding.

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MIXTURE

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Used as a standard for comparison against one or more groups.

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CONTROL GROUP

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Groups of individuals or objects that are exposed to the variable under investigation.

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EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

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Located in the nucleus. Neutral (+/-, N)

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NEUTRON

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Located in the Nucleus; positive charge (P, +)

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PROTON

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Located on outer orbitals; negative charge (e, e-)

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ELECTRON

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A substance that contains more hydrogen and falls between 1 & 6 on the pH scale.

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ACID

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A substance containing more -OH molecules and falls between 8 & 14 on the pH scale.

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BASE

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1000 or 10 to the 3rd power.

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KILO

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0.1 or 10 to the -1 power.

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DECI

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0.01 or 10 to the -2 power.

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CENTI

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0.001 or 10 to the -3 power.

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MILLI

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0.000001 or 10 to the -6 power.

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MICRO

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0.000000001 or 10 to the -9 power.

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NANO

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Standard Unit of Length

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METER

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Standard Unit of Volume

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LITER

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Standard Unit of Mass

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GRAM

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Group used as a standard for comparison against one or more groups.

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CONTROL GROUP

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Group of individuals or objects that are exposed to the variable under investigation.

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EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

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Observed outcome of the test, what happens to this depends on what is manipulated.

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DEPENDENT VARIABLE

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Can be manipulated or changed by the researcher

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INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

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All other variables that must remain constant during the test.

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CONTROL VARIABLES

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Organisms consist of one or more cells.

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FIRST TENANT OF CELL THEORY

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The cell is the smallest unit of organization that still displays the properties of life.

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SECOND TENANT OF CELL THEORY

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-Nucleoid
-Permeable cell wall around membrane
-Flagella
-Pili
-Circular DNA

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PROKARYOTIC CELL

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-True Nucleus
-Cytoskeleton made of proteins
-Organelles
-Permeable Plasma Membrane

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EUKARYOTIC CELL

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Either allows or pumps specific solutes diffuse through a membrane spanning channel in their interior.
-Active Proteins: energy (calcium pump)
-Passive Proteins: no energy (ion-selective channels)

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TRANSPORT PROTEINS

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Bind extracellular substances such as hormones & can trigger a change in all cell activities.

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RECEPTOR PROTEINS

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-Unique identity tags for each species
-Identify a cell as self or non-self

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RECOGNITION PROTEINS

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Help cells of the same type locate each other & remain in the proper tissue

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ADHESION PROTEINS

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-Form channels that match up across the plasma membranes of two cells.
-let signals & substances rapidly flow from the cytoplasm of one into the other

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COMMUNICATION PROTEINS

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-net movement of molecules or ions down a concentration gradient
-rate of movement is affected by temp, molecular size, electric gradient, pressure gradient & concentration.

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DIFFUSION

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Difference in the number per unit volume of molecules (or ions) of a substance b/w two adjoining regions.

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CONCENTRATION GRADIENT

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Transporter allows a solute to cross a cell membrane simply by diffusing through its interior (open or closed channels)

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FACILITATED DIFFUSION

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net diffusion of a specific solute is against gradient; transporter must be activated by energy source (usually ATP)

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT

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-allows for movement of large molecules into a cell
-vesicle forms around particles when a patch of plasma membranes sinks inward & seals back on itself.

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ENDOCYTOSIS

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-movement of large molecules from inside to outside of the cell
-a vesicle that formed in the cytoplasm fuses with the plasma membrane so that its contents are released to the outside

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EXOCYTOSIS

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The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane to a region where the water concentration is lower. (hypotonic to hypertonic)

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OSMOSIS

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a solution that contains fewer solutes that water.

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HYPOTONIC

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a solution that contains more solutes that water

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HYPERTONIC

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a solution that shows no net osmotic movement

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ISOTONIC

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when fluid puts pressure against the wall or membrane that contains it

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HYDROSTATIC (TURGOR) PRESSURE

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measure of the tendency of water to follow its water concentration gradient & move into that fluid

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OSMOTIC PRESSURE

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When hydrostatic & osmotic pressure are equal in magnitude, osmosis stops COMPLETELY!

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HYDROSTATIC VS OSMOTIC PRESSURE

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Cells capacity to aquire energy & use it to build, degrade, store and release substances in controlled ways.

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METABOLISM

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The capacity to do work, it cannot be created or destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another.

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ENERGY

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Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

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Energy tends to flow from concentrated to less concentrated forms
-concentrated energy seems to disperse spontaneously
-once lost, cannot be returned to its original source.

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SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

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The measure of how much and how far a concentrated form of energy has been dispersed after energy change. (energy loss)

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ENTROPY

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The starting substances in reactions.

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REACTANTS

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The substance formed before a reaction ends.

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INTERMEDIATES

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The substance remaining after the reaction.

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PRODUCTS

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Catalysts that can make reactions occur hundreds of millions of times faster than they would on their own. Not consumed or irreversibly altered.

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ENZYME

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Reactions that bind to specific enzymes.

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SUBSTRATE

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Pockets or crevices where the substances bind and where specific reactions can proceed rapidly and repeatedly.

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ACTIVE SITE

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-used by cell to maintain, lower or raise concentrations of substances
-adjust how fast enzyme molecules are synthesized
-activate or inhibit enzymes already built

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CONTROLS AFFECT ON ENZYME FUNCTION

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Other site (not active site) on an enzyme that, when bound to, changes the enzymes shape or hides/exposes the active site.

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ALLOSTERIC SITE

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A change that results from a specific activity that shuts down the activity.

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FEEDBACK INHIBITION

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-When temp is up it boosts the rxn rates by raising the likelihood that a substance will bump into an enzyme & by raising a substrate molecule's internal energy.
-The more energy a reactant molecule has, the closer it gets to activation energy; thus finally taking part in a rxn.
-Too high of a temp changes the shape of the enzyme, usually occurring around 112 degrees F.

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TEMPERATURE'S AFFECT ON ENZYME FUNCTION

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Most enzymes work best at between a pH of 6-8. If too high, enzymes are not able to be activated for use.

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pH'S AFFECT ON ENZYME FUNCTION

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-Most enzymes stop working effectively when fluids in which they are dissolved are saltier or less salty than they can tolerate.
-Interferes with the H+ bonds that hold an enzyme in its 3D shape & inactivates the enzyme.

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SALINITY'S AFFECT ON ENZYME FUNCTION

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-Metal ions or co-enzymes that help at the active site or taxi H+ ions or functional gaps to other reactions.
-One or more metal ions assist in nearly 1/3 of all known enzymes.

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CO-FACTORS THAT AFFECT ENZYME FUNCTION

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Enzyme mediated sequence of reaction in cells. (biosynthetic, degradative)

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METABOLIC PATHWAYS

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-Requires net input of energy to produce glucose, starch and other large molecules from small ones
-Build molecules

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BIOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYS

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Unstable molecules are broken down into smaller, more stable products, with the release of energy in forms that cells may use
-break down large molecules

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DEGRADATIVE (CATABOLIC) PATHWAYS

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Straight line from reactants to products

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LINEAR PATHWAY

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The last reaction regenerates the type of reactant used in the first step of reaction sequence.

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CYCLIC PATHWAY

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Reactants or intermediates are channeled into two ore more different sequences of reactions.

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BRANCHED PATHWAY

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-Metabolic reactions do not always run from reactants to products, most also run in reverse with products being converted back into reactants.
-When the reaction rate is about the same in either direction chemical equilibrium has been reached.

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CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

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-When glucose is in abundance it is split into two pyruvates
-when pyruvate is in abundance & glucose is in short supply, the cell builds glucose from two pyruvate

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GLYCOSIS

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Reaction in which one molecule gives up electrons and another molecule gains them.

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OXIDATION

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Membrane-bound arrays of enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons in sequence

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ELECTRON TRANSFER CHAIN

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-OH
-Found in alcohols
-Water soluble
-Enzyme action can split or join molecules

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HYDROXYL GROUP

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-CH3
-Found in fatty acid chains

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METHYL GROUP

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-CHO
=CO
-Found in sugars, amino acids & nucleotides
-water soluble
-aldehyde if at end of Carbon Backbone
-ketone if on interior of Carbon backbone

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CARBONYL GROUP

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-COOH
-Found in amino & fatty acids
-water soluble
-highly polar
-acts as an acid

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CARBOXYL GROUP

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-NH2
-NH3
-Found in amino acids & certain nucleotide bases
-water soluble
-acts as weak base

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AMINO (AMINE) GROUP

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-PO4
-Found in nucleotides (ATP), DNA, RNA, many proteins, phospholipids
-water soluble
-acidic

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PHOSPHATE GROUP

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-SH
-S-S-
-Found in amino acid cysteine
-helps stabilize protein structure

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SULFHYDRYL GROUP

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One molecule gives up a functional group entirely, & a different molecule immediately accepts it

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FUNCTIONAL GROUP TRANSFER

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One or more electrons are stripped from one molecule & are donated to another molecule.

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ELECTRON TRANSFER

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Juggling of internal bonds converts one type of organic compound into another.

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REARRANGEMENT

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Covalent bonds join two molecules into a larger molecule. AKA dehydration synthesis.

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CONDENSATION REACTION

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A molecule splits into two smaller molecules.

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HYDROLOSIS (CLEAVAGE) REACTION

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DEOXYRIBOSE SUGAR
-ADENINE, GUANINE, CYTOSINE & THYMINE
-CODES FOR HERITABLE PROTEIN BUILDING INFORMATION
-DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

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DNA

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-RIBONUCLEIC ACID
-RIBOSE SUGARE
-ADENINE, GUANINE, CYTOSINE, & URACIL
-HELPS CELLS RETRIEVE AND USE GENETIC INFORMATION IN DNA TO BUILD PROTEINS

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RNA

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Particular atoms or clusters of atoms covalently bonded to carbon

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FUNCTIONAL GROUP

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Molecule of life that contains the element carbon & at least one hydrogen atom

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ORGANIC COMPOUND

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Consists of hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to carbon.

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HYDROCARBON