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79 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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hardy weinberg theorem equation
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(p+q)^2=1
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H-W ideal population conditions
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-random mating
-identical alleles -large population -no mutation, migration, genetic drift, or natural selection |
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H-W predictions about ideal population
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1. after one generation of random mating, population will reach equilibrium (no state of evolutionary change)
2. once population reaches equilibrium, allele frequencies in the population will remain constant generation to generation with random mating 3. after a single generation of random mating, genotypic frequencies in the population will reach an equilibrium (remain constant) |
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genetic drift
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as size of population becomes smaller, the likelihood of losing alleles due to chance increases
-decrease in genetic variation -bottle neck and founder effects |
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symbiosis
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condition when two or more organisms of different species live intimately together.
-symbiont lives on the host |
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primary host
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where organism attains sexual maturity
-intermediate or secondary hosts may also be essential for some phase of development or infection of the primary host |
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ectosymbiont
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symbiont that lives on the outside of its host's body
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five symbiotic relationships
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1. parasitism (+/-): symbiont benefits and host is harmed: flukes found in vertebrate body organs and feed on tissues and body fluids of host; tapeworm
2. mutualism (+/+): both symbiont and host benefit: clown fish and sea anemones; protozoa that live in the hindgut of termites (termites do not have digestive enzymes to break the wood down so the protozoa digest the wood with enzymes and release complex sugars used by termite for nutrients); nitrogen fixing bacteria and roots of legume plants 3. commensalism (+/0): symbiont benefits and host is neither harmed nor helped by the relationship: gregarine protists in the digestive tract of meal beetles (gregarines live in digestive tract of meal beetles...these protists get a safe moist place to live with plenty of food but neither harm nor help the meal beatle); sharks and pilot fish 4. Amensalism (-/0): association is disadvantageous to one member while other is not affected (penicillium secreting penicillin; black walnut tree secretes chemical that harms o |
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adaptations of symbionts (5)
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1. holdfast structures (hooks or suckers to help symbiont hold on to the host)
2. getting offspring to a new host: most symbionts have to be on or in a host or they will die...so how do they reproduce? symbionts can have elaborate reproductive cycles and an increased output of offspring to ensure that at least some offspring will survive and reach a new host. 3. reduction or loss of structures: principle of allocation states evolution will produce phenotypes that will allocate limited resources to maximize fitness by balancing physiological processes...consequently, many symbionts show a reduction or loss of structures that are not needed for survival 4. loss of virulence: just enough to make them sick but not die...ability to cause host to become sick...tends to occur through evolutionary time 5. defense against host's immune system: if symbiont causes harm to host, host may try to get rid of said symbiont...therefore, many symbionts will often have a body covering for protection (or chemical methods |
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predation
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individuals eating other living individuals...must eat while avoid being eaten
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co-evolution
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-natural selection favoring traits in predators that improve their ability to catch prey while simultaneously favoring traits int he prey that improve their ability to escape predation
-predator v. prey -back and forth selection pressures for new adaptations between predators and prey |
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fitness
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measure of how successful one morph or phenotype in an interbreeding population is, compared to all other morphs or phenotypes in the population
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relative fitness
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average number of prey caught by one predator morph compared to the average for other predator morphs
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prey fitness
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fitness or ability to escape predation
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plant adaptations for living on land
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1. control of water loss: they had to be able to absorb water when it was present and avoid losing it due to evaporation
2. stress of grabity: plants must hold their photosynthetic body parts up to the sun in order to make food...this is much easier to do in the water...on land, some sort of skeletal system is necessary to hold leaves and stems up 3. protective packaging for gametes and embryos: just as mature plant needs adaptations for dry terrestrial habit, so do their eggs, sperm, and developing young |
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plant tissues (3)
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1. groound tissues: make up bulk of plant body
2. vascular tissues: transport water and food throughout the plant body...two many types are xylem and phloem 3. dermal tissues: as with animals, dermal tissues cover and protect the surface of the plant body. we will only consider one type of ermal tissue, the epidermis |
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ground tissues
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a. parenchyma: parenchyma cells are soft and moist; perform virtually all metabolic activities of plants. parenchyma in leaves is photosynthetic yet other types serve for storage, secretion and specialized tasks...most abundant and versatile tissues found in apalnt
b. collenchyma: strong yet pliable supporting cells with unevenly thick walls c. sclerenchyma: strong, thick walled cells that support the body of the mature plant, coat the seeds, and form a sheath around the vascular tissues. the thick cell walls of sclerenchyma are impregnated with lignin and they do not only strengthe n but waterproof the plant, an important adaptation for life on land |
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vascular tissues
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vascular bundles. consists of 3 tissues that are arranged from outside to inside in the following order: phloem, vascular cambium, and xylem. vascular cambium cells grow and divide by mitosis and produce new xylem and phleoem. this increases diameter of the stem
b. xylem: tissue that conducts water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant c. phloem: moves sugars, primarily sucrose from the photosynthetic leaves to other parts in the plant...main conducting cells are a live at maurity |
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dermal tissues
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a. epidermis: epidermal tissue is usually just a single layer of cells covering the outer body pats of the plant. epidermal cells secrete a waxy coating called the cuticle, which protects against water loss and invasio by microorganisms
b. trichomes: specialized epidermal cells that appear as hairy like structures on the surface of the plant. they can be unicellular or multi-cellular and perform a variety of functions, such as befuddling insects, stinging larger anima,s and reflecting light |
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photosynthesis
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co2+h20--(sunlight)--> c6h12o6+heat+o2
-stomates get co2 into the plant and move o2 out of the plant (water vapor can also move out of the plant, a bit of a problem) -stoma (or pore) is surrounded by two specialized cells called guard cells that are attached to each other at both ends...when guard cells swell with water, they open up the pore and the loss of water consequently causes guard cells to become flaccid and closes the opening of the stomata, preventing further water loss and co2 entry into the plant |
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plant growth
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plants produce new cells through mitosis
-plants usually restrict mitosis to specific locations within the plant called meristems -apical mersitems are located at the very tips of the shoots and roots, and this is where the new cells are produced -lateral meristems thicken the plant stem -the vascular cambium, located between the phloem and xylem in the stem produces new phloem to its outside and new sylem to its inside each year |
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intraspecific competition
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when members of same species require a resource in short supply, they may affect the amount of resources available to the others, perhaps even impacting each other's biological fitness
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interspecific competition
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populations of different species compete for a resource in short supply
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allelopathy
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-two competing species may gain an advantage by negatively influencing the growth of the competitor by adding harmful biomolecules, called allelochemicals, to the environment, harmful to the competitor but not to itself
-difficult to determine in nature because it was found that allelochemicals do not always act directly on the competing plant species but rather indirectly on mutualistic species associated with the competitor |
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major clades of plants
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-algae: completely aquatic: no protective waterproof covering, egg and sperm must swim to find one another, water buoys up their photosynthetic parts to get sunlight
-bryophytes:first land plants -ferns: have true roots to absorv water and minerals...rigid cell walls provide skeletal support to allow them to grow tall -gymnosperms:seeds -angiosperms:flowers |
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endosperm
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seeds of angiosperm have a triploid (3n) endosperm as a food supply (2n from mom and 1n from dad). provides more nutrition for the embryo than the haploid gametophytal food tissue in gymnosperm seeds
-also helps disseminate seeds because birds eat seeds for the endosperm it contains |
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eusocial system
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several generations of offspring live and work together
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bees separation of work
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queen: only fertile female with the longest life span...her role is to mate with the drones and lay eggs. she is fed and taken care of by the workers. primary role is laying eggs. fertilized eggs become female worker bees while unfertilized eggs become drones, which develop into slightly larger cells
-drones: male bees in a hive and develop from unfertilized eggs and function mainly to fertilize queens. drones drift from hive to hive and generally do not mate with queens from their original hive. they die after mating and take prat in maintaining temperature of the hive -workers: most numerous bee...workers are female but sterile...care for queen and juvenile bees, foraging for food, building and maintaining the nest, defending the hive, making and storing honey and pollen and maintaining the temperature within the hive |
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bee relatedness
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sisters: at least 50%, up to 75%
sisters and brothers: 50% brothers and mothers: 50% fathers and sons: 0% |
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waggle dance
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-if food source is more than 75 meters from the hive, bee will perform a waggle dance
-1.5 seconds = 1500 meters |
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protists
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eukaryotes that live their whole lives as a single cell
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flagella
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-whip-like motion...flagellum moves in a wave that pushes the cell forward (euglena)
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cilia
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ciliates beat with a motion similar to the breast stroke...cilium is held rigid and pushes backwrs to propel the cell forward (paramecium)
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pseudopodia
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uses microfilaments rather than microtubules
-two intertwined strands of the protein actin make up a microfilament, and the strand can grow or shrink at either end by the addition or subtraction of actin molecules -microfilaments change conformation and, in the process, create forces that are responsible for changing cell shape or even mocement |
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osmoregulation
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-elimination of metabolic wastes takes place by simple diffusion across the cell membrane
-done through contractile vacuoles that consist of membrane bound tubes that empty into a large collecting vacuole, surrounded by microtubules, which contract around the tubes and push the contents into the collecting vacuole -then the microtubules contract around the vacuoles and force water tout through a pore on the cell surface |
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sensation
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euglena have a stigma that sits on one side at the base of the flagellum...it senses light and the cell is able to respond to it
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nutrition
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-autotrophic: make own food through photosynthesis
-heterotrophic: ingest food from the environment -food facuoles: engulf solid food through membrane bounded vesicles -cystome: food vacuoles may form at nearly any site on the cell surface, as they do in the amoebas, or at particular sites associated with some sort of cell mouth |
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euglena
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-contain chloroplasts but can also feed as heterotrophs
-flagella -stigma |
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amoeba
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-use microfilaments because they are pseudopods
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paramecium
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-have contractile and food vacuoles
-cilia |
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heartbeat
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number of times ventricles contract
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systole
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contraction of ventricoles
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diastole
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period of ventricular relaxation
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lub dub
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lub: atrioventricular valves between atra and ventricles, beginning systole
dub: closure of semilunar valves leading to the aorta and pulmonary artery, ending systole -hear murumur: heart valve that does not close properly and leak blood |
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pulse
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each ventricular contraction forces blood into arteries...expansion of arteries is called pulse
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blood pressure
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-presure exerted by blood on arterial walls
-systolic/diastolic pressure |
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sphygmomanometer
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represents blood pressure in terms of mm of mercury (blood pressure)
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spirometer
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measures lung function
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differentiation
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as embryo grows, cell types develop from three primary germ layers through differentiation, until all adult tissues are formed
-process of cells specializing in structure and function through differences in gene expression -differentiated cells look & function differently b/c they have different genes that will be turned on or off in the differentiated cell types |
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embryonic stem cells
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can produce any type of cell in the body, and only found in early embryo
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adult stem cells
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seemingly differentiated cells from tissues that retain the ability to divide indefinitely, but usually only produce their same cell type
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tissue
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group of cells that function together in the performance of one or more specialized tasks
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hematoxylin stain
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stains nuclei of cells dark blue/purple
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eosin stain
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collagen fiers are pink
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epithelial tissues
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-covers body and lines spaces and cavities within body. they form main barrier between the sterile inside of the individual and the rest of the world
-tightly packed together, usually capable of mitosis -classified as simple (single layer) or stratified (more than one layer) -squamous=flat like a squashed egg -cuboidal = about as high as its wide -columnar = tall adn thin |
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connective tissues
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-helps to support other tissues, connects one tissue with another, serves as a place floor blood vessels and nerves to pass from one area to another, forms the ropes that attach muscle to bone (tendons) and bones to another bone (ligaments (also adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood)
-3 components: cells, fibers, and extracellular matrix -human/frog blood -bone |
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muscle tissue
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3 types: skeletel, smooth, and cardiac
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nervous tissue
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highly variable throughout the body
-has nerve cells (neurons) |
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ad lib sampling
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used to record as much info as possible, often unsystematically
-great first investigatory tool |
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focal animal sampling
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-data is systematically recorded on one individual for a pre determined amount of time
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all occurrence sampling
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where a researcher records ever instance of behaviors of interest
-good for short or rare behaviors |
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interval sampling
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-where behaviors of interest at set time points are recorded
-good for vehaviors that happen often and if needed, time intervals can also be adjusted |
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primate behavioral ecology principles
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-hierarchical/nepotistic: relationships when females compete directly for resources
-egalitarian: females compete indirectly for resources -female bonded species: two females will form a coalition for resources -philopatry: they stay -dispersal: they leave |
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ecological factors that determine patterns
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1. low group competition -> females leave
2. high within group competition -> females stay 3. low population densities -> between group competition is rare 4. high population densities -> higher between group competition 5. clumped resources = more resource competition |
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3 germ layers
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ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
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diploblastic v. triploblastic
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2 germ layers v. 3
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symmetry
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radial and bilateral
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coelem
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body cavity
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phylum porifera
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simplest and most sessile, assymetrical, no true tissues
-example: sponge |
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phylum cnidaria
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-2 germ layers
-radial -absent circulatory system -jelly fish, sea anemones |
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phylum platyhelminthes
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-bilateral, triploblastic development, organ development, have a brain, cns, complex reproductive system
-flatworms, tapeworms, flukes |
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phylum nematoda
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-demonstrate first true complete digestive system with a mouth, intestinal tube, and anus
-roundworms |
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phylum rotifera
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-microsopic pond inhabitants with a pseudocoelom, and a trademark halo of cilia for feeding and locomotion
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phylum annelida
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-3 germ layers
-true segmentation and closed circulatory system -bilateral -circulatory system -segmented roundworms, earthworms, leeches |
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phylum mollusca
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-soft, unsegmented bodies but outer fleshy layer often secretes hard shell
-3 germ layers, bilateral, true coelem -oysters, snails, slugs, squids, octupi |
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phylum arthropoda
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-very diverse
-highly successful body plan with bilateral symmetry, segmentation, hardened exoskeleton, jointed appendages, fusion of segments, well developed brain -crayfish, spiders, lobster, shrimp |
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phylum echinodermata
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-sedentary, 3 germ layers, radial
-sea star, sea urchin |
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protosomes
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spiral and determinate; solid masses of mesoderm split to form colon; mouth develops from blastopore (first mouth)
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deuterosomes
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radial and indeterminate; folds of archenteron form coelon, anua develops from blastopore
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