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116 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Chloroplasts are concentrated in the cells of the _______, the green tissue in the interior of the leaf
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mesophyll
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Tiny pores in a plant where carbon dioxide enters the leaf and oxygen exits
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stomata
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_____ is a thick fluid found in the second compartment of the chloroplast. What happens here?
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stroma, sugars are made from co2.
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thylakoids
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a system of disklike membranous sacs which contain the third chloroplast compartment.
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thylakoids are concentrated in stacks called _____
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grana
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Where are chloroplasts located?
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thylakoid membranes
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Photosynthesis formula
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6 CO2+ 12 H20+ light> C6H12O6+ 6 H2O+ 6O2
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Where does 6O2 released in photosynthesis come from?
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12H2O
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Where does each molecule end up?
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here
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Redox reaction
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oxidation-reduction process
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oxidation
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the loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.
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reduction
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the gain of electrons by a substance involved in a redox reaction.
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When water molecules are split apart, they are ______.
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oxidized
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CO2 is _____ when it's turned to sugar.
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reduced
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What are the two stages of Photosynthesis?
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Light reactions and Calvin Cycle (or dark reactions)
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Which reactions convert light energy to chemical energy and produce O2 gas as a waste product?
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light reactions
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Summary of the Calvin cycle
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a cyclical series of reactions that assemble sugar molecules using Co2 and the energy-containing products of light reactions.
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What is ATP made from?
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ADP and phosphate.
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The incorporation of carbon from Co2 into organic compounds
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carbon fixation
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Gamma, X-Ray, UV, Visible, Infrared, Microwave, Radio
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Which kinds of light are absorbed mainly by pigments in the granum?
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blue-violet and red-orange
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Which pigment participates directly in light reactions? What color light does it absorb?
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Chlorophyll a
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What pigment broadens the range of light that a plant can use by conveying absorved energy to chlorophyll a?
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chlorophyll b
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Which pigment passes some light to chlorophyll a but mostly dissipates excessive light energy? What color does it absorb the most?
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carotenoids, blue-green
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The molecule which excited electrons pass their electron too.
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primary electron acceptor
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Reaction center (in photosynthesis)
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the donating chlorophyll molecule which gives an electron to the primary electron acceptor and the primary electron acceptor.
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Photosystem
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antenna molecules, reaction center, primary electron acceptor
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the chlorophyll A molecule in photosystem I
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P700
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the chlorophyll A molecule in photosystem II
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P680
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Which is first, photosystem 1 or photosystem II?
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photosystem II
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What is added to NADP+ to create NADPH?
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two high-energy electrons and a H+.
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What is the process which gives photosystem II needed electrons?
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H2O is split into 2 H+, O, and two electrons. The two electrons are used in photosystem 2. 2H+ is in the chloroplast and is used later for reduction of NADP+. O molecules combine and are released through stoma.
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Products of light reactions
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ATP, O2, and NADPH
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the protein complex which is flask shaped and creates energy through chemiosmosis
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ATP synthase
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In photosynthesis, the chemiosmotic production of ATP is called _____________.
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photophosphorylation
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An electron transport chain is between ________ and _______. The energy released pumps ___ ions from the ________ into the _____
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photosystem II and photosystem I. H+. stroma. thylakoid compartment.
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What molecule is constructed from the Calvin cycle which is used to make glucose or other organic molecules as needed?
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G3P
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First step of Calvin cycle, enzyme, and product, and sugars involved.
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(3) CO2 molecules are catalyzed by Rubisco, which combines each CO2 with a five-carbon sugar called RuBP. Six molecules of 3-PGA result, 2 from each CO2 molecule.
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how many GP3s are needed to make one glucose?
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2
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What is the net gain of one calivn cycle spin?
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1 G3P
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in one turn of the calvin cycle, __ CO2 molecules are used, ___ ATP molecules are used, and ___ NADPH molecules are used.
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3,9,6
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Where do the Calvin cycles take place?
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the stroma
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a type of reproduction used by prokaryotes meaning "dividing in half".
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binary fission
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sexual reproduction
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the reproductive process that involves the union of a sperm and an egg.
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The scientist who stated that all cells come from cells
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Rudolf Virchow
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chromosomes
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the structure that contains most of the organism's DNA.
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Cell theory
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all cells come form preexisting cells
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What are the sections of Interphase in Mitosis?
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GI, S, G2
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What percent of the cell cycle is interphase?
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90%
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What happens in G1?
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-cell increases supply of proteins
-increases number of organelles -grows in size |
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What happens in the S phase?
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DNA synthesis occurs
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What happens in G2?
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-metabolic activity
-protein synthesis |
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What does the mitotic phase consist of?
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Mitosis and Cytokinesis
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What happens in mitosis vs cytokinesis?
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Mitosis- nucleus and contents divide and are evenly distributed in two daughter cells
Cytokinesis- cytoplasm divides. |
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Four stages of mitosis
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prophase metaphase anaphase telophase
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Prophase (5 things, but in no particular order)
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1.Chromatin coils
2.Nucleoli disappears 3. Late in prophase, nuclear envelope breaks up 4. Mitotic spindle begins to form 5. kinetochore forms at the centromere region where microtubules attach. |
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Metaphase (2, in no order)
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1. Mitotic spindle fully formed
2. Chromosomes convene on metaphase plate. |
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Anaphase (2, in no order)
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1. Two centromeres come apart from each chromosome and sister chromatids separate.
2. Motor proteins of the kinetochores powered by ATP walk the daughter chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell. |
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Telophase (4, in no order)
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reverse of prophase
1. Daughter nuclei appear 2. nucleoli reappear 3. chromatin forms 4. mitotic spindle disappears |
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Cytokinesis
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Cleavage furrow in animals cells, cell plate in plants. Cytoplasm divides.
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What stage?
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Anaphase
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WHat stage?
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prophase
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What stage?
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metaphase
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what phase?
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interphase
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what phase?
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telophase/cytokinesis
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Forms in animal cells during cytokinesis
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cleavage furrow
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Forms in plant cells during cytokinesis
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cell plate
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typical body cell
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somatic cell
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How many chromosomes does the typical somatic cell have?
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46
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homologous chromosomes
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two chromosomes which both carry genes controlling the same inherited characteristics
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Autosomes
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non-sex chromosomes
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how many pairs of homologous chromosomes do humans have?
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23
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diploid cells
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cells whose nuclei contains two homologous sets of chromosomes
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diploid number? in humans?
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total number of chromosomes. In humans, 46
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gametes
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A sex cell. a haploid egg or sperm.
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haploid cell
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a cell with a single chromosome set (23 in humans)
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haploid number in humans
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23
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location for a gene on the chromosome
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locus
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goal of meiosis
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reduce the chromosome number from diploid to haploid
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Prophase I (7)
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1. Chromatin coils so that each chromosome becomes visible.
2. synapsis/ creation of tetrad 3. Crossing over 4. Nucleoli disappears 5. Spindle forms 6. Nuclear envolope breaks 7. Tetrads move towards center of cell |
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synapsis
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homologous chromosomes come together as pairs
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four chromatids, 2 homologous chromosomes. all together as a pair.
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tetrad
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Metaphase I
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Tetrads are aligned int he center of the cell
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How are homologous chromosomes held together in Metaphase I?
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at sites of crossing over
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Anaphase I
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Duplicated chromosomes move to either end of the cell, breaking from the tetrad.
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Telophase I and Cytokinesis 1
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1. Chromosomes arrive at the ends of the poles
2. Two daughter haploid cells are born 3. In some cells, chromosomes uncoil and nuclear envelope reappears. There is a interphase. Sometimes this doesn't happen. |
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In Meiosis, when does each cell become a haploid cell?
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Telophase I
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Meiosis II
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Basically Mitosis with a haploid cell.
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Crossing over? when?
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the exchange of corresponding segments between two homologous chromosomes during prophase 1 of meiosis.
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chiasma
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site of crossing over which appears as x-shaped regions.
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karyotype
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an orderly display of magnified images of the individual's chromosomes
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nondisjunction
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one of the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate. Can occur in meiosis one or two.
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disorder with XXY, XXXY, XXXXY.
Who does it occur in? Results? |
Klinefelter's Syndrome. Men only. Small testes, breast development, sterile.
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XYY disorder. Who does it occur in? Results?
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Normal Male. Taller than average.
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XXX disorder.Who does it occur in? Results?
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Metafemale. limited fertility
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XO. Who does it occur in? Results?
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Turner's syndrome, female.
-Short stature. -web of skin between neck and shoulders. -not fully developed sex organs -sterile |
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Trisomy 21
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Also known as Down syndrome. Round face, flattened nose bridge, small, irregular teeth, heart defects, susceptibility to respiratory infection, leukemia, Alzheimer's disease. 50% chance of giving down syndrome to the child of one who has down syndrome.
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hybrids
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the offspring of two different varieties
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monohybrid cross
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parents differ in only one characteristic
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dihybrid cross
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mating of parental varieties differing in two characteristics
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principle of segregation. Who's principle?
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pairs of genes segregate (separate) during gamete formation. the fusion of gametes at fertilization pairs genes once again.
Mendel's |
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principle of independent assortment, who?
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each pair of alleles segregates independently during gamete formation
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testcross
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a mating between an individual of unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual.
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recessive genetic disorders
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1.albinism
2.cystic fibrosis 3.galactosemia 4. PKU 5. Sickle cell 6. Tay-Sachs |
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dominant disorders
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1. dwarfism
2. alzheimer's disease 3. huntington's disease 4. hypercholesterolemia |
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Aminocentesis
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a physician carefully inserts a needle through the mother's uterus, extracting amniotic fluid
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Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
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the physician inserts a flexible tube through the mother's vagina and cervix into the uterus and suctions off a small amount of fetal tissue from the placenta. Faster than aminocentesis.
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Which is less risky? amniocentesis or CVS?
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aminocentesis
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A, B, O, or AB refers to
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the type of carbohydrates covering a person's red blood cells.
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incomplete dominance
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red+white=pink
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codominance
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both alleles expressed
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polygenic inheritance
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the additive effects of two or more genes on a single phenotypic characteristic
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dna has a _________ backbone
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sugar-phosphate
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Thymine and cytosine are ___-ring structures called ______.
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single, pyrimidines.
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Adenine and guanine are _____-ring structures called _____.
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double, purines
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Says #A=#T and #c=#g
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Chargaff Rule
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